GOSHAENUR

Asian History is Incomplete without The Paan!

2011-12-09T20:23:00.001-08:00

Thepaan leaves are generally chewed either by itself or in combination with slakedlime, betel nuts (areca variety) and other spices like aniseed and sometimestobacco etc.

Preparationof paan is an art and the secret technique is passed down from generation togeneration. Chewing the leaves and nuts promotes red colored stimulatingsalivation. This has been in practice for thousands of years. It was a crazeamong aristocrats.

Thereare several ways a paan can be folded. This is a special branch of the paanculture. Asian history is incomplete without the paan.

Paanis an antiseptic that freshens the breath and is also an ayurvedic aphrodisiacmedicine. Myriad are the uses of paan. It cures headaches, joint pain andarthritis as well as toothaches. In some places it serves the purpose of anantibiotic and a digestive medicine. It cures constipation, congestion andhelps in lactation. It even helps in ridding the body of worms. Unani stream ofmedicine claims that paan is a sweet smelling stimulant that preventsflatulency. It stops bleeding. Applying heated paan as a foment, especially inthe case of children cures stomach troubles. Drinking betel leaves boiled withblack pepper can cure indigestion.

Referenceto the use of betel leaf goes back more than two thousand years, in an ancientPli book of Srilanka, ‘Mahawamsa’. In the Vedas too there is reference to paanbeing the first offering to the guru. Paan is found in Shrimad Bhagavat as LordKrishna used to chew. This evidence is of 5000 years ago. In the Shrimad BulathPdhaya is a special dance mentioned in the Kohomba Kankariya of Srilanka. Herethe sacred and practical are entwined in poetic beauty excellence.

TheTradition of eating paan was popularized by Noor Jehan, the mother of EmperorShah Jehan.Empress Noor Jehan discovered that by adding some ingredients topaan and eating it gives a natural red colour to the lips, catechu (Kattha) andquick lime (chuuna).

http://www.eternalglories.com/paan_chewing.htm

http://www.theoriginof.com/paan.html

The Veil as Ghunghat & Purdah - a Hindu & Muslim dress

2011-03-31T11:11:00.000-07:00

Ghoonghat or Ghunghat is a Hindi word which describes a type of veil or headscarf worn by Indian women to cover their head. The Sari grew in length with one end used to cover the bosom, the head and the face. This allowed women to work in the fields beside men or even ride a horse like men. Traditionally, in some parts of India, women are supposed to have a Ghoonghat in front of the family elders and men, except husbands and close family members. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghoonghat

Sushila Singh, a professor at Banaras Hindu University in Varanasi, India, explains the Urdu language terms of purdah as well as hijab: “Hijab may be understood as the dignity of woman. Purdah is practiced to protect the dignity of woman” (Singh NP). Although the behavioral rules of purdah are complex and depend upon the particular context and region, purdah is generally a cultural practice that confines women within the four walls of their homes. If they must leave the house, they are required to observe purdah by wearing ‘burqua’ – a dress that covers Islamic women from head to toe. Muslims practice this particular form of purdah, while Hindu women do not.

In fact, purdah originated in the culture of Islam and is an alien phenomenon to Hindu women (Singh NP). Singh explains, “In the mythic past of Hindu culture, all women figures as exemplified by different goddess statues are bare-headed and their faces are never veiled” (Singh NP). However, with the Muslim invasions came the purdah system for Hindu women to practice. Although this system was established for the protection of Hindu women just as it protects Islamic women, this purdah took a different form. “Veiling one’s face, or “ghoonghat,” came into practice” (Singh NP).

Through the ritual of “ghoonghat,” Hindu and Islamic women are forced to communicate with “outsiders” from behind a screen. According to Singh, “other than the husband and children, all are outsiders – including the other family members” (Singh NP).

http://www.haddonfield.k12.nj.us/hmhs/academics/english/Women'sRightsinIndia.htm

Unlike Muslim and Christian traditions veil has very recent history in Hindu culture and society.

According to the German scholar Albrecht Weber Indian literature is one of the oldest literatures in the world but the Vedic or pre-Vedic period has no record of veil or “ghunghat” (the word used for veil in Hindi). The veil appears for the first time in 16th century literature written in Hindi language. Weber’s observation supports my argument that veil in Indian subcontinent was introduced only after Muslim invasions.

A famous incidence in history of Rajasthan can be seen as an evidence of how veil started in Indian subcontinent. In fourteenth century one of the Muslim invaders Alahuddin Khilji visits a Rajput King Rana Ratansen of Chittor Garha. The female quarter of the palace, though distant, was just opposite the quarter where the sultan was installed. A small lake divided his abode and the Rani’s palace. By chance he sees the Rani Padmini’s uncovered face in the lake water and falls in love with her. He plans to win her and returns back to attacks Chittor Garh to steal the queen but what he gets are the ashes of this beautiful queen who decides to die then to submit to his lust. As a consequence the women in Rajasthan started to cover their face to avoid attracting specifically the Muslim invaders.

Strong evidence in favor can be seen by the absence of veil among women in Southern India where there is no insistence on head cover or other such practices neither in public nor in private places. In contrast, in most northern states, the women are forced to cover their faces both in public and in privacy of their houses.

Veil transforms as an imposed identity specifically for the married woman. In most families she is not only supposed to cover her face but is also prohibited to talk even to her son in law (who is normally of her own children’s age). With time women have learned to use the veil as an instrument to enhance their beauty and what has been the means of silencing them seems became the aspect of attraction. A woman in veil generates much more curiosity than the one with uncover face as it sexualizes her more.

The absence of Veil in Sanskrit, Prakrat or Apbhransh literature shows that the use of veil in India is neither religious nor cultural. In contrast to the Classic Sanskrit Literature the sixteenth century Hindi Literature is full of portrayals that shed light on the use of veil in medieval period in India. The period is known for two mainstream literatures. The one called the RitiKal (which comes close to the courtly poetry in English) offers images of veil in more sensual way and the other known as Bhaktikal that presents veil in a philosophic way.

Contrary to the sexualizing of veil/ gunghat by Ritikalin poets the Bhaktikalin poet uses it in philosophic way and the veil emerges as the requisite mediating object between the physical and spiritual worlds.

The famous Sufi poet Malik Mohammed Joyce in his epic Padmavat use it in a metaphoric way. Following the Sufi tradition he does not see veil as an instrument for enhancing female beauty but as a barrier between the soul (which is always feminine contrary to the Sanskrit tradition where it is masculine) and the God; the ignorance and the knowledge. In 15th and 16th century Hindi literature such use of veil was quite common among most poets of Bhakti Movement.

Another very well known Bhakti poet, Kabir Dasa, writes his poems in a form known in Indian poetics as “dohas”. He follows Jayce and in his very famous doha “Ghunghat ke pat khol re tohe piya milenge” uses the veil/ghunghat as a symbol of ignorance. In this famous doha Kabir asks one to uncover/the veil of ignorance and assures that by doing so he/ she will meet his dear.

Concluding the debate I feel that the imposition of veil on Hindu woman (specifically on the women of North India) comes as a defense mechanism against the Muslim invaders but the society ended up adopting this and even forcing the women to wear a veil even when there are no invaders. Christian woman, except the nuns, are free from imposition. Whereas the situation of Muslim women is becoming more problematic as on one hand it is the natural desire to be free from this imposed identity but on other hand it is the question of one’s cultural identity. In current politicized atmosphere it is hard to say how many Muslim women will openly admit that veil is a religious, cultural and social imposition.

The political enforcement by some European countries has got severe reaction. More Muslim women are trying to defy the law and are appearing in public with their headgear. The specific identity of a nun in Christianity is her dress that covers her head and body but she never became the target of such polemic discussion.

The same law makers in European country who are fighting against the use of veil by Muslim woman never raised their voice or tried to strip of a nun of this specific identity. The veil has been used by the women of Muslim origin for centuries in such a way that it has become their only identity which I feel even they are scared to strip off.

It is the use of psychology of fear that helps in the religious imposition of veil and makes her see unveiling as an act of disrespect. It seems that by politicizing the veil on the pretext of democracy and equa rights the Western law makers are trying to remove this fear but on the contrary they are depriving a woman of her right and her freedom. She should be given the freedom to decide and chose her dress. Sudha Swarnakar: http://www.abraec.org/coniec/pdf2/6.pdf

A Garment of Modesty from the Mughals to the Indo-Pak Sub-Continent Today

2011-03-07T11:37:00.000-08:00

Shalwar Kameez traces its origins to the Mongols and was once considered a Muslim Dress. Shalwar Kameez is a traditional garment worn by the people of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. It is worn by both men and women due to its modesty with Muslim values, comfort and freedom of movement. Differences exist between Men’s and Women’s Shalwaar Kameez.

The Shalwar Kameez has a very significant place in the History of the Textiles and traces its roots back to the invasion and subsequent rule of the Indian subcontinent by central Asians as far back as 400 CE. Evidence of Persian influence on Textiles and Clothing in India can be traced to the Kushan dynasty (001 AD). Coinage and stone palettes found from the Indo-Scythian/Parthian period show Greek and Persian influences in clothing. The palettes depict people dressed in caps or head-bands, ruched long sleeved Tunics, calf-length Coats worn loose crossed-over from right to left and secured with leather or metal belt and baggy trousers.

The Timurids (Muslim Dynasty of Turko Mongols) who invaded the northern part of the subcontinent in the 12th century brought with them their traditional nomadic Attire with its Persian and Turk Mongol influences. The descendants of the Timurids established the Mughal Empire (derived from Mogulistan or Land of Mongols- AD 1526-AD 1857).

The Mughal emperors are renowned for their impassioned interest in painting, architecture, jewellery making literature and poetry, textiles. Textiles flourished remarkably under the Mughals. Various techniques of weaving, crinkling, dying, patterning and embroidery were developed and encouraged. Interestingly, each emperor maintained his own contemporary style of dressing in court and otherwise.

Badshah Babar who laid the foundation for the empire came from the cooler climate of Samarkand, retained the costumes of his homeland. The most popular Garments in his period were a long Coat called Chafan and a sheep-skin Overcoat called Postin worn with Pajama-like trousers. His son, Humayun introduced Persian elements in the court costumes. A patron of arts and painting and passionately interested in astronomy, he is said to have sought the help of planetary movements in choosing what to wear. He also maintained a special treasure house in his palace to accommodate Textiles and Garments.

Humayun's successor Jalaluddin Akbar led the empire to its classic and most flourishing period in history. This Classic period saw the spread of the empire from the north to most areas of the Indian subcontinent. His reign encouraged a synthesis of Persian and Indian styles in everything from architecture to clothing. This led to the flowering of classical forms, styles and shapes that later became an integral part ofIndian Dress Design. Akbar took the initiative of introducing local textiles, which were best suited to the hot climate of the region. He commissioned workshops for carpet making, textile design and was devoted himself to making haberdashery which he considered a pleasant pastime! He himself took interest in the fashioning of Court Dresses and introduced the Chakdar Jamah to his court, which is a cross over Tunic, with slits around the skirt and an asymmetrical hemline. The men dressed in a Tunic called Jamah and was worn with close fitting Pajama trousers called Izar and later known as Shalwar. Although it was in fashion in

India

since medieval times, Akbar restyled the garment and developed it into a formal gown by removing slits, rounding the hemline and increasing the fullness of the Skirt. The Tunic was tightened at the waist by a belt of fabric with tassels called Patka. The Jamah which was knee long in the beginning, reached up to the ankles (referred to as Sarbgati meaning that which covers the entire body) in the later Mughal days. The women's Dress of the empire consisted of close fitting trousers paired with a bodice (a variation of Jamah called Angharakha or Qameez) that came down to the end of the Shalwar and worn with a half-sleeved embroidered open Jacket with a delicate transparent Shawl (called Paramnarm meaning extremely soft) draped like a sari.

During subsequent reigns of Shah Jahan and Aurangazeb the royal garments became more decorated with heavy embellishments of floral designs. Motifs were outlined with gold thread coupled with ‘Pietra-dura’ effect of the precious stones. Block printing and the art of Kalamkari (meaning pen work) were rejuvenated with Persian influences of Persian flower motifs and designs by the 17th century.

The Mughal rule is considered a ‘golden age’ of textile crafts in the Sub-continent. By the seventeenth century, Jamah, Chogha(cape) and Anghrakha remained the height of fashion along with accessories for men such as the Atamsukh (a long, loose garment worn like an overcoat in winters), Turban (the style of tying the turban varied according to social status), Patka, Jutis (shoes) and Farji (kind of a coat) etc. The precursor of the current Cummerband was another popular piece of clothing (called Kamarbandh meaning waistband) worn as girdle or waistcoat by both men and women to enhance the bust-line. The court Garments of era were marked by intricate patterning of clothing and delicate handmade embellishments.

The form of dressing followed by Indian classical Kathak dancers is a near accurate portrayal of the styles of clothing in the Mughal period and shows vividly the influences in the fashion world in the Indian subcontinent today.

The present day Shalwar Kameez in its various styles is an adaptation of the clothing of Mughal era.

http://www.babaaj.com/store/pc/viewContent.asp?idpage=14

The "Princely" Nawabs of Bahawalpur of 17-Gun Salute!

2011-01-22T10:51:00.000-08:00

The rulers of Bahawalpur were Abbasids who came from Shikarpur and Sukkur and captured the areas that became Bahawalpur State. They took the title of Amir until 1740, when the title changed to Nawab Amir.

Muslim rulers almost all used the title "Nawab" (the Arabic honorific of naib, "deputy," used of the Mughal governors, who became de facto autonomous with the decline of the Mughal Empire), with the prominent exceptions of the Nizam of Hyderabad & Berar, the Wali/Khan of Kalat and the Wali of Swat.

Other less usual titles included Darbar Sahib, Dewan, Jam, Mehtar (unique to Chitral) and Mir (from Emir).

More prestigious Hindu rulers (mostly existing before the Mughal Empire, or having split from such old states) often used the title "Raja," or a variant such as "Rana," "Rao," "Rawat" or Rawal. Also in this 'class' were several Thakur Sahibs and a few particular titles, such as Sar Desai.

The most prestigious Hindu rulers usually had the prefix "maha" ("great", compare for example Grand duke) in their titles, as in Maharaja, Maharana, Maharao, etc.

A Princely State (also called Native State or Indian State) was a nominally sovereign entity of British rule of India that was not directly administered by the British, but rather by an Indian ruler under a form of indirect rule such as suzerainty or paramountcy.

At the time of Indian independence, only five rulers—the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Maharaja of Mysore, the Maharaja of Jammu & Kashmir State, the Maharaja Gaekwad of Baroda and the Maharaja Scindia of Gwalior—were entitled to a 21-gun salute.

Five more rulers—the Nawab of Bhopal, the Maharaja Holkar of Indore, the Maharana of Udaipur, the Maharaja of Kolhapur and the Maharaja of Travancore—were entitled to 19-gun salutes.

The most senior princely ruler was the Nizam of Hyderabad, who was entitled to the unique style Exalted Highness.

Other princely rulers entitled to salutes of 11 guns (soon 9 guns too) or more were entitled to the style Highness. No special style was used by rulers entitled to lesser gun salutes.

As paramount ruler, and successor to the Mughals, the British King Emperor of India, for whom the style of Majesty was reserved, was entitled to an 'imperial' 101-gun salute—in the European tradition also the number of guns fired to announce the birth of a (male) heir to the throne.

All princely rulers were eligible to be appointed to certain British orders of chivalry associated with India, The Most Exalted Star of the Order of India and The Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire. Even women could be appointed as "Knights" (instead of Dames) of these orders.

The Royal House of Bahawalpur is said to be of Arabic origin and claims descent from Abbas, progenitor of the Abbasid Caliphs of Baghdad and Cairo. Sultan Ahmed II, son of Shah Muzammil of Egypt, left his country and arrived in Sindh with a large following of Arabs in 1370.

He married a daughter of Raja Rai Dhorang Sata, receiving a third of the country as a dowry. Amir Fath'ullah Khan Abbassi is the recognized ancestor of the dynasty. He conquered the Bhangar territory from Raja Dallu, of Alor and Bahmanabad, renaming it Qahir Bela. Amir Muhammad Chani Khan Abbasi entered the imperial service and gained appointment as a Panchhazari in 1583. At his death, the leadership of the tribe was contested between two branches of the family, the Daudputras and the Kalhoras. Amir Bahadur Khan Abbasi abandoned Tarai and settled near Bhakkar, founding the town of Shikarpur in 1690. Daud Khan, the first of his family to rule Bahawalpur, originated from Sind, where he had opposed the Afghan Governor of that province and was forced to flee.

The princely state of Bahawalpur was founded in 1802 by Nawab Mohammad Bahawal Khan II after the breakup of the Durrani Empire. The city claimed to be one of the largest states of British India more than 451 kilometres long. Nawab Mohammad Bahawal Khan III signed a treaty with the British on 22 February 1833, guaranteeing the independence of the Nawab.

During the first Afghan war, the Nawab Muhammad Bahawal Khan III assisted the British with supplies and allowing passage and in 1847-8 he co-operated actively with Sir Herbert Edwardes in the expedition against Multan. For these services he was rewarded by the grant of the districts of Sabzalkot and Bhung, together with a life-pension of a lakh. On his death a dispute arose regarding succession. He was succeeded by his third son, whom he had nominated in place of his eldest son. The new ruler was, however, deposed by his elder brother, and obtained asylum in British territory, with a pension from the Bahawalpur revenues; he broke his promise to abandon his claims, and was confined in the Lahore fort, where he died in 1862.

In 1863 and 1866 insurrections broke out against the Nawab and was succeeded by his son, Nawab Sadiq Muhammad Khan IV, a boy of four. In 1879, the Nawab was invested with full powers, with the advice and assistance of a council of six members. During the Afghan campaigns (1878–80) the Nawab placed the entire resources of his State at the disposal of the British Indian Government, and a contingent of his troops was employed in keeping open communications, and in guarding the Dera Ghazi Khan frontier. On his death in 1899 he was succeeded by Muhammad Bahawal Khan V, who attained his majority in 1900, and was invested with full powers in 1903. Although the title was abolished in 1955 by the Government of Pakistan, the current head of the House of Bahawalpur (Salahuddin Muhammad Khan) is referred to as the Amir.

"The Foundation Stone of Sadiq Public School Bahawalpur was laid by the late Ala Hazrat Nawab Sadiq Mohammad Khan Abbasi -V, on March 04, 1953. The School was intended to produce young men with high moral principles, who should be self-reliant and self- confident, with qualities of initiative, sense of responsibility, selfless devotion to duty, religious outlook and burning desire to serve the cause of Islam and the country. This great project was taken up under the advice and guidance of Makhdumzada Syed Hasan Mahmud, the Chief Minister of Bahawaipur State and was executed with the blessings of the Ala Hazrat. The School started functioning on January 18, 1954 when the Ala Hazrat performed its opening ceremony."

Courtesy:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princely_state

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahawalpur

http://hmmad.wordpress.com/2009/07/08/sadiq-public-school-the-exelance-of-former-princely-state-bahawalpur/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahawalpur

http://uqconnect.net/~zzhsoszy/ips/b/bahawalpur.html

http://www.royalark.net/Pakistan/bahawal5.htm

A Nizam of Hyderabad & A Princess of the Ottoman Caliphate

2010-12-19T01:30:00.000-08:00

Her Imperial Highness The Princess Hadice Hayriye Ayshe Dürrühsehvar Sultan, (Khadija Khayriya Ayesha Dürrühsehvar, خدیجہ خیریہ عائشہ در شہوار or Turkish: Hatice Hayriye Ayşe Dürrüşehvar), also known as HIH Princess Durru Shevar was born in Turkey when the Ottoman Empire was passing through its last phase. Her father, Caliph Abdülmecid II, went into exile in the Paris, France after the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924.

On the family's exile to France in 1924, she was sought by the Shah of Persia and King Fuad 1 of Egypt as a bride for their respective heirs, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Farouk, and by Prince Azam Jah(1907 - 1970), the eldest son and heir of the last Nizam of Hyderabad State, Osman ALi Khan, Asif Jah VII, whom she married in Nice, France, on 12 November 1931. Her first cousin Princess Niloufer, was married to Prince Moazzam Jah, the second son of the Nizam. It has been suggested that through these dynastic marriages, Osman Ali hoped to acquire the Caliphate for his descendants.

The marriage of the princess was performed, in the south of France, by the good offices of Maulana Shaukat ALi, brother of Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, the leader of the Khilafat Movement in India.

It was believed at that time that the matrimonial alliance between the Nizam, the richest ruler in the world of his time, and the deposed Caliph would lead to the emergence of a Muslim ruler who could be acceptable to the world powers in place of the Ottoman sultans. Princess Durru Shahvar, whose father was raised by a branch of the Ottoman monarchy deeply interested in modernizing reforms and believed in modern education for women including his wives and daughter, became a popular public figure after her arrival in Hyderabad.

Following the birth of her sons Prince Mukarram Jah in 1933 and Prince Muffakham Jah in 1936, she took charge of their upbringing, the two princes being educated in Britain and also marrying Turkish ladies. The last Nizam later bypassed his own son and nominated her first son and his grandson, as his successor.The Princess became the first woman to inaugurate an airport when she inaugurated the airport in Hyderabad in the 1940s. She is also credited with inaugurating the Osmania General Hospital. She set up the Durru Shehvar Children's Hospital for women and children in the old city of Hyderabad. Her last public appearance in the city was when she presided over the opening ceremony of the Nizam’s Silver Jubilee Museum in 2000. She last visited Hyderabad in 2004. She divided her time principally between Hyderabad and London.

Royal Patronage of the Nizams of Hyderabad & the Asif Jahi Dynasty

2010-12-05T00:52:00.000-08:00

“The star of destiny shines on the forehead of your son”. Mir Qumaruddin displayed considerable skill as a warrior and at the age of nineteen, the Emperor Aurengzeb bestowed on him the title “Chin Fateh Khan”.

At 26, he was appointed Commander in Chief and Viceroy, first at Bijapur, then Malwa and later of the Deccan. Viceroy Farukh Siar who was the Mughal Emperor for a brief tenure conferred on Mir Qumaruddin the title Nizam-ul-mulk Fateh Jung. He thus became the first Nizam. A subsequent Emperor, Muhammad Shah bestowed on him the title Asif Jah. The dynasty of the Nizams of Hyderabad thus came to be known as the Asif Jahi Dynasty. After gaining independence, Asif Jah came to be known as Nizam-ul-Mulk. He first set up his capital at Auragabad but later moved to Hyderabad, which became the capital of the Asif Jahi dynasty.

Asif Jah's second son Nasir Jung was supported by the British whereas Muzafar Jung, grandson of Asif Jah, was supported by the French. Nasir Jung succeeded; but after a brief rule he was slain in 1750 in an encounter with the French troops at Arcot. Thereupon, Muzafar Jung ascended the throne. In the following year he was murdered and his son Salabath Jung was put on the throne. In 1762 Salabeth Jung was dethroned by his brother Nizam Ali Khan, and confined at Bidar where he died in 1793.

Hence, Nasir Jung, Muzafar Jung and Salabath Jung, who were contestants for the sovereignty of the Deccan in the short span of thirteen years between the death of Asif Jah and accession of Nizam Ali Khan, have not been historically recognised as reigning Nizams.

Nizam Ali Khan ascended the throne in 1763 and he ruled Hyderabad for almost forty years. This was one of the eventful periods in the history of India. Foremost among competitors for supremacy in the Deccan were the Marhattas and it was during this period that the famous French adventurer Monsieur Raymond was employed by Nizam Ali Khan.

The succession of Sikandar Jah as Nizam was undisputed and he appointed Mir Alam as his Prime Minister. With the accession to the throne by Sikander Jah and end of war with the Marhattas, there commenced an entirely new era for Hyderabad. Sikander Jah was succeeded by his eldest son Nasir-ud-Daula. It was during his reign that Salar Jung was appointed as the Minister in 1853. Salar Jung guided the affairs of the Deccan with great wisdom and introduced several reforms to improve the finances of the Dominion.

On 17 May 1857 Afzal-ud-Daula became the fifth Nizam. This was the first time the first war of Indian Independence was fought in the North and there was general disorder in the Deccan.

Mir Mahboob Ali Khan, who was born on 18 August 1866, was the only son of Afzal-ud-Daula. He was installed on the masnad by the British Resident and Sir Salar Jung, who also acted as the co-regent. Mir Osman Ali Khan, the seventh and the last Nizam of Hyderabad ruled for 37 years (1911 - 1948). His Dominion was lager than England and

Scotland

put together, with an area of 86,000 Sq. miles.

The seventh Nizam led a very simple life, yet he was one of the richest men in the world. He donated generously to every cause in India as well as abroad irrespective of caste and religion. If it was the Muslim theological school at Deoband which received financial help, it was also the privilege of the Benaras Hindu University. His list of donations included Rabindranth Tagore’s Shantiniketan and several other institutions including hospitals, schools, for famine relief, etc. The golden temple in Amritsar also enjoyed an annual donation.

The Nizam’s rule saw the growth of Hyderabad economically and culturally. Electricity, railways, roads and airways developed. Huge reservoirs and irrigation projects such as the Tungabhadra, and Nizamsagar were completed. The early work on Nagarjunasagar was undertaken. The Osmania University, Colleges and Schools were founded throughout the state. Nearly all the public buildings currently in such as the Osmania General Hospital, High Court, Central State Library, Assembly Hall, Jubilee Hall and other buildings in the Public Garden were built during Osman Ali Khan’s reign.

Soon after India gained independence in 1947, all princely states were invited to join the Republic. Nizam VII was reluctant to do so; but in 1948, after the Police Action, Hyderabad state was merged into the Indian Union. Mir Osman Ali Khan, the last Nizam, died on Friday 24 February 1967. It was end of the princely era.

http://mahabubnagar.tripod.com/Nizam_Dynasty.htm

Henna Use As Adornment & Healing in Muslim Tradition

2010-11-24T09:16:00.000-08:00

Henna occupies a unique place in the Moslem world.

Botanists believe the henna plant, Lawsonia inermis, originated in Persia. It grew extensively in Egypt and was carried to

India

where it was used since at least 700 AD for decorating hands and feet. Some sources claim that the Moguls took the use of henna to India in the 12th Century C.E., centuries after use in the Middle East and North Africa. There is evidence to support that the tradition of mehndi originated in North Africa and the Middle Eastern countries during ancient times.

One of the earliest documentations of henna use comes from ancient

Egypt

, where it is known to have been used to stain the fingers and toes of the Pharaohs prior to mummification.

Historically henna has also been used for medicinal purposes, to dye cloth and leather as well as hair, to color the manes of horses and other fur of other animals. In many eastern places, henna is thought to hold special medicinal or even magical properties. It is used to help heal skin diseases, prevent thinning hair, and cool the skin to reduce swelling in hot climates. It is made into a beverage to heal headaches and stomach pain. Newly purchased homes in

Morocco

often have their doors painted with henna to wish for prosperity and chase away evil. Henna is used as a protection against the “evil eye”. The foreheads of bulls, milk cows, and horses are sometimes decorated with henna for their protection. Tombstones in graveyards are sometimes washed with henna to please the sprits.

Henna is used in celebrations of betrothals, weddings, births, circumcisions, religious holidays (similarly for Hindus, Muslims, Jews, Christians and other religions) and National festivals.

Henna was incorporated into the customs of Muslims in the 6th century CE. Henna traditions were long established in Arabia, and henna was used by Prophet Mohammed and all of his wives. As Islam expanded quickly into other countries, eastern Mediterranean henna traditions followed.

Henna was grown and used in Spain, by Christians, Jews and Moors from the 9th century AD until 1567 when the Spanish Inquisition outlawed it.

Muslims worldwide continue to celebrate the “Night of the Henna” and regard henna as a beautiful and suitable ornament for women to the present day.

Some of the most complex and elegant hennaes ever created were done between 900 to 1700 CE in the Islamic countries. Many miniature paintings and pottery pieces show elegantly patterned red and black henna during this period. Delicate and expressive henna patterns reached their peak in medieval

Persia

, incorporating calligraphy, multiple applications and varied colors. Persian henna artists achieved blacks, reds, browns, golds, oranges, even blue and green tints with additional herbs, spices and unusual techniques!

The henna paste is carefully applied and must remain undisturbed on the skin for several hours to create a strong dark stain. Most recipes contain some combination of sifted ground henna leaves, strong black tea, lemon juice and a few drops of eucalyptus oil. The thickness of the paste determines the ease of application. Factors which influence the intensity of the final design include heat, warmth which darkens the stain, and length of time the henna paste is left on the skin. Once the paste is applied it will dry and eventually crack. Today some artists still use sticks or toothpicks to apply it, though many prefer homemade plastic cones or large syringes.

The leaves, flowers, and twigs are ground into a fine powder, and then mixed with hot water. Various shades are obtainable by mixing with the leaves of other plants, such as indigo, tea, coffee, cloves, tamarind, lemon, sugar, and various oils are also used to enhance the colour and longevity of design.

Generally, Arabic (Middle-eastern) mehndi features large, floral patterns on hands and feet, while Indian (Asian) mehndi uses fine line, lacy, floral and paisley patterns covering entire hands, forearms, feet and shins; and African mehndi art is large, and bold with geometrically patterned angles. African mehndi patterns usually use black henna while Asian and Middle Eastern mehndi is often reddish brown.

It is also a common custom in many countries to step into the mehndi, or simply apply the paste without creating a pattern in order to cool, protect or treat the skin (sometimes referred to as a “henna-shoe").

Henna is still in use in all the Middle Eastern and North African countries, though in some areas henna fell out of favor in the 20th century as women sought to emulate European and American fashions.

In the early Mughal courts of India, Persian women with elaborate black henna patterns are depicted alongside Indian women with red-tinted, although unpatterned hands. By 1700, the bridal celebration of the “Night of the Henna” was a well-established part of Muslim India’s traditions, and married Muslim women in India frequently used henna for adornment, for luck, and to enhance sensuality. A portrait of Mumtaz Mahal has one of the earliest Indian patterned hennaes.

http://www.habiba.org/culture.html

http://www.newsfinder.org/site/more/the_art_of_mehndi/

The Development & Foundation of the Sari by Hindu & Muslim Culture

2010-11-21T07:20:00.000-08:00

The history and origin of sari seems to date back to the period of the establishment of civilization. Evidence states that women in the Indus Valley civilization used to cover themselves with a long piece of cloth, draped like a trouser. However, the word ‘sari’ originated from the Prakrit word ‘sattika’, which is mentioned in the early Buddhist literature. The word got shortened and was called sati, which further evolved into sari.

A statue recovered from the Indus Valley Civilization depicts a female priest wearing a cloth draped like a sari. The sari used to be draped in a way so that it divides the two legs and forms a trouser like attire. This was basically done to aid the temple dancers in their movements and also cover to their modesty. It is believed that the ‘dhoti’, which is the oldest Indian garment that was draped, is the foundation behind the sari. Till the 14th century, the dhoti was worn by both men and women.

The early statues of Goddesses show that the sari was draped in a sensual manner, like a ‘fishtail’, which was tied at the waist, covered up the legs and came in front of the legs like a decorative drape. During that era, the upper part of the body was either partially covered or was left bare. Down south in the state of Kerala, one can still see people wearing the traditional sari, which is a two piece garment, consisting of a lungi and a shawl. With the coming of the Muslims, the ghagra or the petticoat was discovered and clothes were stitched. Before that, Hindus believed piercing clothes with needles was impure.

The blouse came into existence with the Muslims and also the British. Since then, sari has come of age and now many new styles are being experimented with.

The Indian Sari is more than 5000 years old. It was first mentioned in Rig Veda, the oldest surviving literature of the world, written somewhere around 3000 BC. The Sari, originally intended both for men and women, is probably the longest incessantly worn dress in the history of mankind.

Every Sari has a design theme, and often has a story to tell. The main field of the sari is framed on its three sides by decorative borders. Two of these borders run along the longitudinal sides of the sari, and the third comprises the end piece of the sari, and is known as its Pallav.

The Pallav is a border, and the more intensified version of the two longitudinal borders. This end piece is the part of the sari that is draped over the shoulder and left to hang over the back or front.

The Banarasi sari is a must for brides. This classic style came into existence during the Moghul era. The signature design of Banarasi saris is a narrow fringe like pattern - called Jhalar - found along the inner and outer border of the fabric.

http://www.scribd.com/doc/36554760/History-of-Saree-and-Types-of-Saris-From-Different-Regions-in-India

Satpara Kamkhwab of Mughals: A Seven Layer Brocade Fabric

2010-10-29T04:50:00.000-07:00

Kam means little or scarcely. Khwab means a dream.

Kamkhwab or Kinkhwabs are heavy fabrics or several layers of warp threads with an elaborate all-over pattern of extra weft, which may be of silk, gold and / or silver threads or combinations. There may be three to seven layers of warp threads. Tipara means three layers and Chaupara means four layers to Satpara meaning seven layers. Its specialty is in profusely using the gold and silver thread in a manner that sometimes leaves the silk background hardly visible.

Often a touch of Badla was given to floral motives to enhance the beauty. This type of zari has mostly gone out of favor amongst the contemporary weavers and they mostly depend on polyester or pure silk as a substitute.

Silk brocade of Banaras, Ahmedabad and Surat (Mughal India) were well known in the seventeenth century.

Kinkhwab was originally an elegant, heavy silk fabric with a floral or figured pattern known most for its butis and jals woven with silk as the warp and tilla as the weft, produced in China and Japan. Tilla in the earlier times was known as kasab. It was a combination of silver and tamba (copper) which was coated with a veneer of gold and silver.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_in_the_Indian_subcontinent

City of Bhopal: Muslim-Hindu Cultural Story of Afghan Soldiers, Gond Warlords and Begums

2010-09-20T21:41:00.000-07:00

Bhopal is the capital of Madhya Pradesh. This city was established by Parmara King Bhoj in 11^thcentury but Afghan soldier Dost Mohammad turned it into a beautiful city. Bhopal was ruled by the Afghans, Mughals and Rajputs. During the reign of each ruler the city has seen various changes.

In the seventeeth century Nizam Shah, one of the several Gond warlords, known as the Gond raja, ruled Bhopal. Nizam shah had emerged as the strongest among the warlords, and he ruled from the fort of Ginnor. Located about 46 miles east of Bhopal, Ginnor fort was built on steep 2000-foot rock. Sheer cliff drops on each side and thick forests on all sides inhabited by beasts, left only one thin trail leading to the fort and were easily defended. He had taken for his wife Kamlapati, a woman of unmatched beauty, education, refined and superbly talented in the arts. A rival Gond-raja Alam shah ruled Chainpur-Bara, obsessed by the beauty of Kamlapati, he eventually poisoned Nizam shah, leading an insecure Kamlapati to invite Dost Mohammad Khan to avenge her honour. A sum of Rupees one lakh was promised as the fees. Dost Mohammad attacked and slayed Alam Shah. Rani Kamlapati, unable to pay him the promised sum of one lakh, offered him Bhopal instead. Dost took over and consolidated the Bhopal riasat, thus laying the foundation of Mirazi-

khel dynasty of Bhopal.

Several years later in 1723, after the death of Kamlapati, Dost sent hundred of his soldiers dressed as women in palanquins up the Ginnor fort. The unsuspecting guards of Kamlapati's son Nawal shah let the dolis through the gates of impregnable Ginnor fort, where Nawal shahs force was defeated and Nawal Shah was killed

An Afghan soldier of the Orakzai tribe Dost Mohammad Khan (not to be confused with the later Afghan King carrying the same name) laid out the present city at the same site following the death of the Mughal Emperor Aurengzeb in 1707. He brought with himself the Islamic influence on the culture and architecture of Bhopal, the ruins of which can be found at Islam Nagar. However, a few generations later, owing to the absence of male heirs, Bhopal came under the rule of Begums.

Bhopal, the second largest Muslim state in pre-independence Indiawas ruled by four Begums from 1819 to 1926. Qudisa Begum was the first female ruler of Bhopal City, who was succeeded by her only daughter Sikandari, who in turn was succeeded by her only daughter, Shahjehan. Kaikhusrau Jahan Begum was the last female ruler, and stepped down for her son. The succession of the ‘Begums’ gave the city such innovations as waterworks, railways and a postal system. Several monuments still stand in the city as reminders of this glorious period in its history.

During the 1857 revolution, the Begums in Bhopal maintained their loyalty to the British by announcing extra incentives to their army ranks for not joining the freedom struggle. The rulers in Bhopal also send a contingent of their army to fight for the British in the first world war as inscribed on the gate near the Hamidia hospital. Most Begums of Bhopal were aligned with the British for security of their state and hence a clear impact of English architecture can be seen in their palaces. The last ruler however, was Nawab Hamidullah Khan(1926-1949). In 1947 he refused to align with the Indian republic and supported Pakistan. Later under the fear of military action by Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, he surrendered and Bhopal became a part of independant India on 1^st June 1949, almost two years after the country’s independence from British rule.

Shairis and poetry recitals are popular in Bhopal. Bhopal is famous for its culture of parda and zarda. Parda is a curtain, which was used to veil the women of the house from outsiders,zardais a kind of tobacco product which is quite famous with Bhopalis. The official language of Bhopal City is Hindi, and Hindi-Urdu with a peculiar Bhopali accent is spoken in western and eastern parts of the city.

Bhopal has an extensive culture of paan eating, topped with variety of seasonings, the most common being chuna, kattha andsupari(nut).

Diwali is celebrated with equal pomp and glory as Eid. Eid is special to the city as all the Hindus take time out to visit their Muslim friends and greet them and get treated with delicacies, the specialty of the day being sweet sewaiya. Bhopali culture is such that both Hindus and Muslims visit each other on their respective festivals to greet and exchange sweets.

Bhopal has many mosques including Taj-ul-Masajid(one of the largest mosques in Asia, Dhai Seedi ki Masjid (one of the smallest mosques in Asia, Jama Masjid (built by Qudsia Begum in 1837) and Moti Masjid (built by Sikander Begum in 1860). Some of the major historical buildings in Bhopal include Shaukat Mahal (a mixture of Indo-Islamic and European styles of architecture).

Gohar Mahal (built by Qudsia Begum, fusion of Hindu and Mughal architecture), Sadar Manzil (used by the Begums for public audience, now used as the head office of the Municipal Corporation) and Purana Kila (part of the 300-year-old fort of Queen Kamalapati, situated in the Kamala Nehru Park). Lakshmi Narayan Temple (or Birla Mandir), situated to the south of Lower Lake, is a temple devoted to Vishnu and his mythological consort Laxmi.

Bhopal is a very beautiful city filled with gardens, lakes, beautiful historical mosques and temples. The present day Bhopal has a population of 1.7 million. Hindus and Muslims consists the majority. Bhopal is divided into two parts: old town and new town. The old town is occupied mostly by the Muslims. Major languages include: Hindi, Urdu, English, and Marathi.

http://bhopal360.com/

http://igrms.com/Bhoj/aboutbhopal.htm

http://bhopale.blogspot.com/2006/12/mirazi-khel-dynasty-of-bhopal.html

Lucknow, Awadh: Treasure of Muslim Cultural and Intellectual Tradition

2010-09-19T01:38:00.000-07:00

Lucknow, Awadh became the focal point of a cultural renaissance with the shifting of capital from Faizabad to Lucknow in 1776.

Awadh is a region in the centre of the modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. The traditional capital of Awadh has been Lucknow, the capital of the modern day Uttar Pradesh. Until 1819, Awadh was a province of the Mughal Empire administered by a Nawab. Saadat Khan Burhanul Mulk was appointed Nawab in 1722 and established his court in Faizabadnear Lucknow. He took advantage of a weakening Mughal Empire in Delhi to lay the foundation of the Awadh dynasty. His successor was Safdarjung the very influential noble at the Mughal court in Delhi.

Under royal Awadh patronage Kathak, Thumri, Khayal, Dadra, Ghazals, Qawalies and Sher-o-Shairi reached their zenith point.

Kathak: The style that flourished under patronage of Muslim rulers of Lucknow came to be known as Lucknow Gharana. Lucknow Gharana was greatly influenced by Muslim culture and traditions. The Lucknow Gharana developed a style of Kathak that is characterized by precise, finely detailed movements and an emphasis on the exposition of thumri, a semi-classical style of love song. The footwork is matched by the percussion instruments like tabala and pakhwaj. It has very intricate movements of the hands and feet along with facial expressions set to complex time cycles. The dance movements include numerous pirouettes executed at lightning speed and ending in statuesque pose.

As a centre of Islamic learning Lucknow witnessed the formation of Lucknow school of poetry under renowned poets like Anes, Dabeer, Imam-Buksh 'Nasika', Mirza Mohd. Raza Khan Burq, Atish, Mirza Shauq Asar, Josh and others. Apart from Ghazals, another form of long narrative poem for which Lucknow is famous is Masnavi. Elegy writing in Urdu also reached a new height through the three forms-'marsiyas'*. 'salams'* and 'nauhas'*.

Urdu as a language attained a rare degree of perfection in Lucknow and slowly Lucknow emerged as a cradle of unforgettable ghazals, masnavi, elegy, hazal* and dramas. The Navabs of Avadh, Twelver Shi'is and patrons of Urdu literature and poetry, provided auspices for the sublimation of the marsiya genre in North India.

In the kingdom of Avadh, during the months of Muharram and Safar, marsiay and nohay were recited on a daily basis in the majalis (gatherings to commemorate the tragedy of Karbala) held twice a day in imambareh (places of gathering for the majalis). The Navabs thus invited effective reciters (marsiya khwan and noha khwan) who had a considerable following themselves. After the recitation of marsiay and nohay, the family of the Prophet was praised and the enemies of this family rebuked.

Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, himself composed a number of songs and dramas under the pen name of , 'Akhtari Pia'. No account of Lucknowi culture is complete without a mention of the famous 'Chowk' of Lucknow. The term 'Chowk' has become synonymous with Lucknow. 'Chowk' has played a vital role in the development of the Lucknowi culture. It is the pivotal point around which the traders, engravers, painters, artisans, weavers, singers flourished and grew.

Chikankari is the delicate and traditional embroidery practiced in Lucknow and it’s environs. Chikan is a unique craft involving delicate and artistic hand embroidery on a variety of textile fabric like muslin, silk, chiffon, organza, doriya and organdi. There are 36 types of stitches used in chikan work. The source of most design motifs in Chikankari is Mughal.

Lucknow is well known for its jewellery and enamelling work. Exquisite silverware's with patterns of hunting scenes, snakes and roses are very popular. The Bidri and Zarbuland silver works of Lucknow find expression on excellent pieces of huqqa farshi, jewel boxes, trays, bowls, cufflinks, cigarette holders, etc.
Renowned ivory and bone carvings with motifs of flowers, leaves, creepers, trees, birds and animals are widely produced in Lucknow. The master craftsmen create intricate items like knives, lampshades, shirt pins and small toys.

'Attars' or perfumes are also produced in Lucknow from the 19^th century. The Lucknow perfumers experimented and succeeded in making attar with delicate and lasting fragrances those are made from various aromatic herbs, spices, sandal oil, musk, essence of flowers, and leaves. The famous Lucknow fragrances are khus, keora, chameli, zafran and agar.

At the turn of the eighteenth century a notable Muslim family settled in Lucknow. Its members were respected for religious learning. It was headed by Mulla Qutb al-Din (d. 1691) who had always retained close links with the Moghul court in Delhi. In fact he and his sons participated in the compilation of al-Fatawa al-`Alamghiriyyah. Since they occupied a French designed house this family came to be known as Farang Mahal.

Dar al-`Ulum Farang Mahal came into existence in 1693. It was founded by Mulla Nizam al-Din Sihal (d. 1748) and was a direct descendent of the Farang Mahal family in Lucknow. He was responsible for evolving the syllabus of this institution which is named after him i.e. Dars-e-Nizam. This syllabus is implemented in all the Muslim religious institutions in India and in other parts of the World, like in South Africa. Dar al-`Ulum Farang Mahal was noted for training Qaadhis (judges), Muftis (those competent to issued legal verdicts) and other legal officials that were, from time to time, required by Muslim courts. Thus Dar al-`Ulum Farang Mahal succeeded in filling the void in Islamic scholarship which existed after the displacement of religious centres in Delhi.

Read more: http://www.elucknow.com/city/craftculture.asp
Read more:http://www.oocities.com/ghumkhar/nohayhist.htm?201017#ixzz0znW0rXRA
Read more:http://www.oocities.com/ghumkhar/nohayhist.htm?201017#ixzz0znVk9N4U
Read more:http://www.oocities.com/ghumkhar/nohayhist.htm?201017#ixzz0znVY71WW Read: http://www.indtravel.com/uttar/culture.html Read: http://sultanpur.nic.in/nawabs.htm

Mughal Male Garb: An Attempt to Bring Together Islamic & Hindu Cultures

2010-09-10T11:57:00.000-07:00

Anne Harwood, for the Scholars of St. Thomas Aquinas, 2008

Male garb during the reign of Akbar was comprised of five basic components.

Men wore a pagri (turban), a jama (coat), a patka (shawl), a katzeb (sash) and either trousers or a dhoti (loincloth).

The Jama

Essentially, the jama is a snugly fitted garment that is complemented by a pair of long sleeves, a distinctive crossover bodice and a full skirt. Although very few examples of the jama have survived from Akbar’s reign, there is a wealth of artistic evidence which, combined with Abu Fas’l’s documentation in The Akbarnama, probably completed in 1596, make it possible to recreate an authentic garment.

A defining characteristic of Akbar’s reign (1556 – 1605) was his attempt to bring together the Islamic and Hindu cultures. His efforts ranged from the personal and dynastic (such as when he married a Hindu princess), to the administrative (Hindu officers figured prominently at his court), to the arts (Akbar was an enthusiastic supporter of Hindu poets and artisans).

This passage illustrates Akbar’s attempts to blend the cultures, as the terms he uses to describe the garments are a mixture of Hindi and Persian phrases. It seems clear that he recognized the need to bring them together while permitting them a means of recognizing each other at a glance, so that the potential for awkwardness and social blunders was minimized. To this end, the Emperor decreed that Muslims would tie their jamas on the right, and Hindus on the left. The jama was therefore a powerful symbol of a man’s religious and social identity.

Akbar further indicated that the skirt of the jama (which is attached to the bodice by a seam hidden beneath the wearer’s sash) should be made rounded: in the reign of his grandfather, Babur, pictorial evidence shows the jama made with slits in the hemline and drooping corners, creating an asymmetrical outline.

The jama is differentiated from other coats of the Mughal era (such as the angharka) in that the skirts overlap in the same fashion as the bodice.

Rather than buttons and loops, the jama was fastened by two pairs of ties. In the case of a Hindu garment, there were two ties inside the jama on the right hand side, one at the armpit and another at the waist. These are hidden from view and help to keep the bodice closed and in place. Another set of ties, usually between seven and nine pairs, closes the bodice on the outside (left) edge. Functional but decorative, these tapes form a row of descending knots or "streamers" overlapping the next pair of ties. While the colour of these tapes can match the colour of the jama, quite often they contrast colourfully with the outfit. In length these outer tapes are not all that long, perhaps some 4 to 6 inches at most.

The social status and wealth of the wearer were indicated by the textiles used to create the jama, by the fullness of the skirts and the length of the sleeves. The sleeves were tight-fitting to the wrist, and were commonly so long as to form soft folds along the forearm. The sleeve also features an inset triangular gusset in the armpit, which allows for a snug fit without compromising mobility.

As previously indicated, the textiles available in Hindustan during the Mughal era were varied and opulent: depending on what the wearer could afford, the choices ranged from lustrous silks to virtually transparent cottons. The finest cottons were found in the upper echelons of court and the hot, humid south, while heavier fabrics were favoured in the cooler north and by those of lower economic status.

Dhoti or Paijama

In his diary, written no later than 1529, Emperor Babur remarked on the dress of the native Hindus: “Peasants and people of low standing go about naked. They tie on a thing called languta, a decency-clout which hangs two spans below the navel. From the tie of this pendant decency clout, another clout is passed between (the legs) and made fast behind.” What Babur is describing is more commonly called a dhoti, which is nothing more sophisticated than a length of fabric (usually cotton) tied around the nether portions like a loincloth. People in India have worn these since antiquity, as seen in the Ajunta cave-paintings dating from the 1^st to the 6^th centuries C.E.

However, anyone wishing to do business with the affluent Muslim amirs was well-advised to look as much like them as possible. Abu Fas’l describes a garment called yar-pirahan, or trousers. He describes these as “…drawers made of all kinds of stuff, single and double…” though he specifically mentions silk and cotton, held in place with a string.

Another term for these trousers is paijama, from which comes our familiar word denoting sleep attire. The word is a compound of two Persian words, pai meaning “feet” or “legs”, and jama meaning “covering”. Both men and women wore paijamas, possibly in imitation of the warlike Rajput princes who preferred them to the dhoti for the mobility they afforded. During the Akbari period, men wore trousers invariably with their jamas (in this context, coats), and there is no artistic evidence to suggest that dhotis were ever worn in combination with the coats.

Paintings of the period indicate that the paijamas were loose and flowing from the waist to the knee, where they became snug down to the ankle. Often the fabric on the lower legs is wrinkled, suggesting that the paijamas were longer than the leg itself and pushed up, just like the sleeves of the jama, in a display of conspicuous consumption. At no time do the paijamas match the jama in colour, and solid colours appear to have been the fashion during Akbar’s reign.

Pagri or Turban

Although Abu Fas’l describes a number of soft caps worn at Akbar’s court, the universal headwear for both Muslims and Hindus was the turban. Ritu Kumar writes:

The most important accessory for an Indian man was his turban, which proclaimed his status, religion, caste and region of origin. To submit a turban to anybody was a sign of total subjugation and the removal of a turban was the most humiliating punishment that could be inflicted on any man.

Paintings from the court of Akbar indicate that there was a difference between the wrap used by a Muslim and that of a Hindu. Generally, Hindu turbans were fuller and rounder than those of the Muslims, who favoured elaborate jewellery to embellish their headgear. Because of the widely disparate, complex and personal styles of wrapping a turban, however, it is virtually impossible to say with any certainty which wrap an individual would have adopted. As Kumar says, “The variety of regional sizes, tying styles and patterns is the subject of a book in itself.”

Fortunately, the traditional Jairpuri turban—called a safa—was well documented. According to Kumar, the safa is “…twenty-five metres long and twenty cms wide. They are usually tie-dyed and worn with the ends left hanging at the back. In former times, the intricacy of the patterning depended on the status of the wearer. Single coloured pagris were used for daily wear, while pagris tie-dyed with lahariya (wavy), mothra (checked) and chunari (dotted) patterns were reserved for special occasions. It requires a consider able amount of expertise to tie a turban well and professional turban dressers, known as pagri bands, were often employed for this purpose.”

The textile known as bhandej is still produced in Rajasthan, and is readily available in East Indian fabric shops.

Patka, Katzeb and Juttis

Three more items finish off the male costume and these are the patka (shawl), the katzeb (sash) and juttis (shoes).

The Patka

The patka is a handsome garment often depicted in illustrations of the period draping elegantly from the shoulders of Akbar’s courtiers. It survives today in India as the dupatta, worn by women as a scarf with their salwar camise and Hindu men on their wedding day.

During the reign of Akbar, the patka was a fairly wide length of woven textile, often plain, but sometimes embellished either with embroidered, painted, block printed or woven designs. We have no evidence that one method of embellishment was preferred over the other, and it is difficult to ascertain how the patka was decorated merely from looking at the illustrations. Given that embroidery, painting and weaving were all arts encouraged by Akbar in his imperial workshops, it is reasonable to assert that the embellishment of a patka was dependent, not on technology or availability, but on the affluence and social status of the wearer.

Other patkas found in the illustrations of Akbar’s courts are further embellished with fringes. They came in wide range of colours, from white to saffron yellow to blues and greens and even (though rarely) black.

Muslims were inclined to wrap their patkas in a variety of styles. Abu Fas’l writes in The Akbarnama that the Emperor himself “…has commenced to wear them double, which looks very well." Hindu men favoured a simple throw, eschewing knots and allowing the garment to drape simply and elegantly over their shoulders, held in place using only the weight of the textile itself.

From antiquity, Hindu men were also in the habit of wearing garlands of fragrant flowers, such as jasmine and champa.

The Katzeb

Even more ubiquitous than the patka, was the katzeb, or sash. In illustrations of the period, it is clear that the patka and the katzeb never matched one another, but like the patka, the katzeb was richly decorated in a number of ways. Examples of 16^th century katzebs reveal that the pallavs (edges) were rarely backed or lined by a stabilizing fabric; therefore embroidered borders were either uncommon or very skillfully executed. It is more likely that the most highly embellished sashes were of brocaded, painted or block printed textiles. Tie-dye is also very likely, as in the case with turbans.

Sashes in the reign of Akbar seem to be of two lengths, long and short. Labourers, servants and courtiers in a hunting party are often shown with shorter and plainer katzebs. Wealthy emirs and the Akbar himself are depicted as wearing longer and more abundant sashes, and in a few cases, two sashes of contrasting colours at once (see Figure Six).

Generally, however, a single katzeb sufficed, and these were worn in numerous ways.

Shorter sashes would have been roughly 2 ½ yards of fabric for a simple tie and drape, while considerably longer sashes, wound around the torso more than once, obviously required more, and bespoke the status of the wearer. Findlay-Arthur estimates that “the average Akbari katzeb measured in the region of sixteen inches to twenty-two inches wide, possibly as much as twenty-four inches wide for very fine and delicate fabrics, including very fine weave cotton.”

Like the patka, the katzeb was made of various textiles. Most extant examples from the 18^th century are silk, silk and cotton mixed, and a cotton middle section with a highly decorated silk, satin or velvet pallav. Given the availability of cotton in India since earliest times, all-cotton katzebs for everyday wear must certainly have been available.

Juttis

Hindus and Muslims differed greatly in their approach to footwear. Followers of Islam wore shoes and boots habitually to protect their feet from the heat and hazards of the Indian landscape. Hindus, on the other hand, view feet and leather both as “unclean”. The making of leather goods, therefore, is and was left to the members of the lowest castes. As a rule, Hindus preferred to go either barefoot or in sandals called paduka, which were made of “pure” materials such as wood or even metal! A bulbous carved or cast decoration fits between the first and second toe, which is how the paduka is kept on the foot. Shoes were invariably removed before entering living areas and temples.

The jutti was the most common form of shoe worn by visitors to Akbar’s court. They resemble more of a slipper, having a curled toe, no laces and often lack a back for the heel of the foot. The soles are made of leather, and the uppers are made of either leather or fabric, frequently embroidered with gold and silver, especially in the case of a Muslim wearer. A very simple pair of juttis can be seen on the feet of a man in Figure 5, just below the knee of the dancing man in the foreground.

http://www.aharwood.ca/personae/costuming.htm

The Muslim Craftsman: Traditional Gold & Silver Zari, Zardozi and Gota Embroidery

2010-09-05T03:42:00.000-07:00

Traditionally made for Mughal and Rajput nobility, zari is gold, and zardozi embroidery is the glitteringly ornate, heavily encrusted gold thread work practised in Jaipur and a few other cities of India, Pakistan and

Bangladesh

.

Either real silver thread, gold-plated thread or an imitation which has a copper base gilded with gold or silver colour, is used for zari. Plain wire is called badla, and when wound round a thread, it is called kasav. Smaller spangles are called sitara, and tiny dots made of badla are called mukaish.

Zardozi is a more elaborate version of zari which involves the use of gold threads, spangles, beads, seed pearls, wire, gota and kinari. The fabric on which the work has to be done is first mounted on a wooden frame called adda, which bears a close resemblance to the Indian charpai or bed. The chhapai or tracing of the design to be embroidered is then transferred on the fabric with neel or chalk powder. Then the embroidery starts. The Zardozi craftsmen or zardoze (pronounced Zar - doe - zay) sit cross-legged around the Adda – the wooden framework with the tools of their trade. These include curved hooks, needles, salmaa pieces which are stiff gold wires twisted like springs and cut to the required length, sitaaras or metal stars, round sequins, glass beads, dabkaa – a combination of gold and silk thread and kasab – silver or gold-plated silver thread.

We can broadly categories the zari handwork in four categories (a) Dapka (b) Salma or nakshi (c) Aarri work (d) Badla work.

The art of this embroidery is mostly passed on from father to son where certain skills are taught with utmost secrecy.

Zari work was mainly done in Madras and Zardozi in Hyderabad until a few decades ago. Today, Lucknow is home to this finest work of gold and silver embroidery.

Akin to applique, gota work involves placing woven gold cloth onto other fabric to create different surface textures. This art is predominantly practised by Muslim craftsmen. Gota is woven on looms in Rajasthan and consists of a warp of cotton yarn and a weft of metal yarn. Small pieces of gota were cut and patched over the textile with the help of thread and needle to create designs in applique. In Jaipuri dialect, this is known as chatapati work. Gota has maintained its popularity even today among the women, the only difference being that the hand-operated loom on which it was formerly made is now power-driven.

Gota is available in different width. With it different types of items are made like Champa, Beejia, Phool, Patti, Gohkroo etc.

It is usually practised by the Muslim craftsman.

Gota work is a form of fabric ornamentation that was probably originated in Rajasthan. It is also known as gota-kinari work and lappe-ka-kaam. These `Gota` and `Kinari` are golden and silver coloured pieces and laces those are sewn on the cloth. The Muslim craftsman generally prepares these.

http://travelspedia.com/South-Asia/India/Rajasthan/Jaipur/7016.html

http://www.indianetzone.com/22/applique_rajasthan.htm

http://myblog-prerna.blogspot.com/p/embroidery-of-rajasthan.html

Online Books, Pakistan, Islam, Islamic Thought, English & Urdu

2010-09-02T04:36:00.000-07:00

Goshaenur is a non-profit bookstore of Islamic Thought and Art focused on publications and craftsmanship of Pakistan

www.goshaenur.com.

The publications are in English and Urdu languages only, specializing in Pakistani publishers.

Goshaenur has a basic online payment and delivery system for within Pakistan only. All inquiries on info@goshaenur.com.

Two Folds of Cloth, Appliqued, Flowered, Pegged: The Shamiana Mughal Tent

2010-08-30T00:20:00.000-07:00

Shamiana is a ceremonial tent richly decorated with hangings, used by the Moghal and Rajput courts as they travelled around the country. They are traditionally made with textile techniques as Appliqué - the technique of applying one piece of fabric to a ground cloth by means of stitching. Shapes and motifs can be attached with an ordinary sewing thread, or by some type of embroidery stitch that is both functional and decorative.

Indeed, the Mughal Empire in India raised the art of the tent to new levels of splendor: Timur's 12-pole tent described by Clavijo was far surpassed by Humayun's Zodiac Tent, in which the 12 signs were worked in precious stones, and by Akbar's vast and carefully planned tent-palace. The window of the tent of Nur Jehan, favorite wife of Jahangir, the fourth Mughal emperor, was screened with a gold medallion set with pearls and gems and golden bars or chains.

Ruy Gonzáles de Clavijo was the Spanish ambassador to the court of the Mongol emperor Timur in Samarkand from 1403 to 1406. His description of Timur’s tents is corroborated by the miniature paintings of the period.

“Nearby this awning where we were seated stood a very large high pavilion, in fact a very huge tent, and it was four-square in shape. In height it was the measure of three long lances such as used by a horse soldier, and the side was a hundred paces from angle to angle, it being as said four-cornered. The ceiling of the pavilion was made circular to form a dome, and the poles supporting it were twelve in number each as thick round as is the chest of a man breast high….

The inner walls of the pavilion are lined with crimson tapestry very beautifully woven in patterns of diverse designs, further it is hung with silk stuffs of many colours, in places worked over with embroidery of gold thread. The ceiling of the pavilion is its mark of greatest beauty for at the four corners are figured four eagles sitting with their wings closed. The exterior walls of the pavilion are made of a silk cloth woven in bands of white and black and yellow that to us appeared made of silk sarsenet. Outside at each corner there is set a very tall staff capped with an apple of burnished copper above which is a crescent.… From a distance indeed this great tent would appear to be a castle, it is so immensely broad and high. It is a wonder to behold, and magnificent beyond description….

Round and about the pavilion on the ground outside is erected a wall of cloth, as might be otherwise the wall of a town or castle, and the cloth is of many coloured silks in diverse patterns…. This forms the great Enclosure surrounding and shutting in the pavilion. It is known by the name of the Sarápardeh, and within its circuit stand many other tents and awnings pitched diversely and at intervals. Among the rest we noted here a very lofty circular tent of another kind, for this is not stayed with ropes, the wall being supported by poles of the size and thickness of our lances, which are wrought into the canvas wall, as might be to form a netting cross-wise. Above those of the side walls rise other long poles which hold up the upper part of the tent forming the domed ceiling…. Then in a row there were four tents that were connected together by a passageway going from one to the other, by which one could pass as might be through a corridor, and this corridor was covered in above by a ceiling....

In this wall, the Enclosure, there were opened at intervals window frames with shutters, but these window openings could not be passed through from without by any one, for each was guarded by a netting of thin silk tape…. High up, in the ceiling of the cupola of the tent we are now describing, is seen the figure of an eagle in silver gilt, it is of a great size and its wings are open. ”

Shamiana in Pakistan Today:

Two Folds of Cloth, Outside Dosuti Coloured, Inner Cloth Flowered Printed or Gulkari with Frill all round. Complete with Kanat Ropes, Bamboo Poles and Pegs. http://www.manzoorsons.com.pk/products.htm

Other Resources:

http://www.vam.ac.uk/activ_events/past_events/intercultural_events/shamiana/index.html http://www.vam.ac.uk/images/image/44877-popup.html

http://findarticles.com/p/news-articles/herald-the-glasgow-uk/mi_8039/is_20070309/briefing-shamiana/ai_n46704226/

A Dance Form That Depicts "Life", A Blend of Hindu & Muslim Culture

2010-08-24T15:56:00.000-07:00

Kathak is the classical dance style of North India. The word Kathak is derived from katha , meaning "a story", and hence the word Kathak means a storyteller who recounted mythological tales in the temples and danced them in a state of ecstasy. Having its origin in the sacred text known as the Natya Shastra , set to be divinely inspired through the sage Bharata, it has become one of the most comprehensive and expressive languages of movement in the world.

With the advent of the Mogul rule in India (11th-18th centuries), it was transformed from a temple dance to court dance and became a brilliant entertainment. It was recognized in its innovative aspect by the Mogul emperors, especially the poet king Wajid Ali Shah who rescued it from oblivion, lent it dignity and founded the famed Lucknow Garana. There are three main gharanas, or schools of kathak. These schools are named according to the geographical area in which they developed. These are the Jaipur, Lucknow, and the Benares gharanas. Each has a slight difference in interpretation and repertoire.

This dance form depicts "life" and is based on the philosophy of the trinity - creation (Brahma), preservation (Vishnu), and destruction (Mahesh). Its poses are seldom static and it has a continuous flow of movements very near to life. Equal stress is laid on intricate footwork and beauty of expression. It is two-dimensional in character; it conceives the space basically in straight lines and does not put emphasis on giving a three-dimensional effect. The human form is conceived as a straight line and there are very few deviations from the vertical median.

Kathak is a wonderful blend of Hindu and Muslim culture. The costumes are very gorgeous for both Hindu (Lahenga-Choli) and Muslim - (Churidar-Kameez-Vest) called Angrakha.

http://www.tarang-classical-indian-music.com/tanz_links/kathak_detailed_infos_eng.htm

Mughal Patronage of Jewelry: Meena Kundan

2010-08-24T06:33:00.000-07:00

Under Mughal patronage the skills of Indian goldsmiths were channelled into the production of not only jewellery but also jewelled objects such as fly whisks and mirror frames, pen cases, boxes and even large-scale pieces of courtly furniture, the most famous of which was the Peacock Throne of Shah Jahan, set with some of the ruler’s most valuable diamonds.

The Mughal appreciation of jewellery was nourished by the availability of gems in the Indian subcontinent. This abundance engendered a highly developed culture of jewellery, marked by sophisticated techniques for working gold, setting jewels, and faceting and carving gems and hardstones.

The word ‘Kundan’ means 'Pure Gold'. And that is exactly what this technique of setting stones required. A collet or cup was made out of pure gold sheets.

· The various parts of the jewel were put into place and fixed in the form of necklaces, earrings, bangles etc and soldered into place.

· The reverse would be carved or etched to create a base for the finishing which was Meenakari or enamel work. Real precious and semi-precious stones were ground into fine power and mixed with catalysts to fill into these grooves and ‘fixed’ into place by blowing them till they melted into place as beautiful colors.

· It could be hammered or beaten into shape to fit uncut or cabochon cut diamonds of size. This was filled with lac or lacquer from trees which was hardened just enough to solidify around the base of the gold cup.

· A very thin foil of pure silver was then spread very carefully on the lacquer layer to cover the black completely.

· On this clean shiny bed of silver foil, the cleanest or shiniest surface of the uncut or cabochon cut diamond and precious colored stone was placed so that it would shine as much as a mirror would. Only the best of colors with highest of clarity grade of diamond were used.

· Finally very fine foils of pure gold were gently pressed down into the fine gaps and spaces around the diamond to ‘set’ it in position. This was one of the slowest and painstaking part of the work since based on this the final look of the jewelry product could change dramatically.

The origins of Kundan are unknown but the guesswork of knowledgeable people indicates that this beautiful technique was born in the Northern parts of India.

http://www.apollo-magazine.com/features/5354676/custodian-of-mughal-jewels.thtml

http://blog.jewelsutra.com/2010/03/kundan-technique-revisited.html

Islamic Shariah & The Natural Instinct to Adorn and Beautify!

2010-08-17T11:58:00.000-07:00

Man has been created with this natural desire to adorn and beautify him/her self. It is an instinct that is unique with human beings, as all the other creations of Allah are void of this perceptivity.
Elegance and beautification are encouraged in Islam, as the Qur'an states.
Allah (s.w.t.) said: Say: Who has forbidden the adornment of Allah which He has brought forth for His servants, and the good things of His providing. [Al-Qur'an: Al-A`raf (7:32)].
Islam also acknowledges this natural instinct of man, thus it did not place an entire stop on this desire. However, Islam laid certain reasonable limitations and restrictions.

Islam also acknowledged the desire of husbands to see their women beautiful and adorned, thus permitted the wives to use the various types of jewellery on their hands and feet. Women are also encouraged to wear Henna on their hands and feet, and good fragrance is regarded as charity.

At home with family members, women may dress as they please.
Others believe that only a woman’s hands and face should show while she is in public. Women who accept this belief often cover their head, neck, and hair with a large scarf which has come to be known as a hijab. This Arabic word can mean several different things to Muslims. Translated literally it means “screen,” “separation,” “cover,” or “partition.” It may also refer to traditional Islamic dress codes for women, or compliance with those codes.
A Muslim man or woman should like only what is Halal in his/her spouse. When someone starts to enjoy what is Haram and starts to think it is beautiful, he/she should question his/her belief and its strength.
Men are told to adorn themselves for their wives as women are for their husbands.
Ibn `Abbas, the companion of the Prophet (s.a.w.) said: "I adorn myself for my wife just like she adorns herself for me, and I wouldn't want to get my right from her without giving her her right too, because Allah (s.w.t.) said: And they (women) have rights similar to those (of men) over them in kindness". (Ibn Abi Hatim and Ibn Jarir).

Islam prohibits Muslims from dressing for the sake of fame, vanity, and pride.
Allah (s.w.t.) said: Allah does not love any proud boaster [Al-Qur'an: Al-Hadid (57:23)].
The Prophet (s.a.w.) said: On the Day of Resurrection, Allah will not look at the person who trails his robe behind him out of pride. (Al-Bukhari and Muslim).

http://www.shariahprogram.ca/

http://clothinginislamm.muslimblogs.com/2010/03/19/clothing-of-men-and-women-in-the-islam/

The Shehnai of the Kashmir Valley

2010-08-06T11:17:00.001-07:00

The shehnai is believed to have originated in the Kashmir Valley, where people use the instrument in band-i-pather. The shehnai is thought to have been created by improving upon the pungi (a woodwind folk instrument used primarily for snake charming).

In other variants of the legend, the shehnai was named after a shehnai player called Saina; derived from sheh (breath) and nai (flute); or derived from the combination of the Persian words shah (king), and nai (reed, flute) to give the meaning "the king's flute".

Shehnai is usually played at traditional North Indian weddings and is associated with the bride leaving her parental house for her husband's house.

The Shehnai is an aerophonic instrument, a double reed conical oboe, common in North India, made out of wood, with a metal flare bell at the end.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shehnai

The Ancient Aryan Boteh, The Kashmiri Buta & The Paisley

2010-08-06T05:15:00.000-07:00

The design motif known as paisley in the west is taken from the ancient Aryan boteh (botteh) motif. Boteh is a Persian word meaning bush, shrub, a thicket (a small dense forest of small trees or bushes), bramble, herb, a palm leaf, and flower bud.

In Kashmir in the north of the Indian sub-continent, the name used to describe the motif is buta.

The earliest surviving examples of the boteh motif in the weavings of Kashmir, are from the third quarter of the 15 century CE. reportedly commissioned by Sultan Zein-al-Aabedin (d. 1468). This Sultan is the one who, according to Kashmiri historians, geographers and researchers, brought the “decorative designs from Iran to India.”

The western name for the boteh motif is taken from Paisley, a town in western Scotland (now a western suburb of Glasgow) which had once specialized in the production of scarves and shawls (from the Persian word shal) decorated with the boteh motif.

Weavers in the town of Paisley introduced an attachment to their handlooms that enabled them to use five different colours of yarn. This innovation gave the Paisley weavers a competitive edge over weavers elsewhere who were only using two colours, commonly indigo and madder. The Paisley weavers also took special care to imitate the Kashmiri shawls as closely as possible. It wasn't long before the name Paisley became synonymous with the boteh motif and demand for the imitation shawls grew as women all over

Britain

began to ask for 'Paisleys'.

Other articles on the boteh also link the motif to the Cypress and to the significance of the Cypress as a tree of life in Zoroastrian folkloric tradition. In addition, the boteh motif is sometimes referred to as the flame of Zoroaster.

There are a variety of different forms of the boteh motif. These different forms could also be related derived shapes and they can sometimes be seen within the same design, be it on fabric, a carpet or an engraving.

http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/trade/paisley.htm

"Islamic Art Belongs As Much To The Present As To The Past"

2010-07-30T06:51:00.000-07:00

Titus Burckhardt

"For the contemplative man a lesson can be learned from everything." (Sufyan al-Thawri)

The art of Islam is essentially a contemplative art, which aims to express above all, an encounter with the Divine Presence.

The origin of Islamic art has often tried to be explained through tracing it back to some precedent in Byzantine, Sassanid, Coptic or other art, yet what is lost sight of, is the intrinsic and original unity of Islamic art and thus the 'seal' that Islam conferred on all borrowed elements.

In order to understand the essence of Islamic art it is first necessary to realise the different conceptions of art itself. From the European point of view, the criterion of an artistic culture lies in its capacity to represent nature and even more in its capacity to portray man. From the Islamic point of view, on the contrary, the main scope of art is not the imitation or description of nature - the work of man will never equal the art of God - but the shaping of the human ambience. Art has to endow all the objects with which man naturally surrounds himself - a house, a fountain, a drinking vessel, a garment, a carpet - with the perfection each object can posses according to its own nature. Islamic art does not add something alien to the objects that it shapes; it merely brings out their essential qualities.

In traditional art, beauty and use go hand in hand; they are two inseparable aspects of perfection, as envisaged by the Prophetic tradition: 'God has prescribed perfection in all things.'

It is connected with the concept of ihsan as set forth in the Hadith of Gabriel, whereby the religion rests on three fundamental principles: Islam (submission to the Divine Will), Iman (faith), and Ihsan. Ihsan may be translated as 'spiritual virtue' or simply virtue, and includes the ideas of beauty and perfection. More exactly it means inward beauty, beauty of the soul or of the heart, which necessarily emanates outwards, transforming every human activity into an art and every art into the remembrance of God.

If we consider inward beauty and outward beauty, we find the latter has its origin in the former. To the extent that human activities are integrated into Islam, they become a support for beauty - a beauty which in fact transcends these activities because it is the beauty of Islam itself. This is particularly true of the fine arts, as it is their role to manifest the hidden qualities of things. The art of Islam receives its beauty not from any ethnic genius but from Islam itself and just as Islamic science has its roots in the Qur'an and hadith, so the typical forms of Islamic art are rooted in the spirit of Islam.

Challenging the notion that works of art from earlier centuries need to be studied as historical 'phenomena'...for the Muslim, the great mosques of Kairawan, Cordoba, Cairo, Damascus, Isfahan, Herat and so on belong as much to the present as to the past, insofar as it is possible to realise the state of mind of those who created them, and thus what is timeless in the art of our spiritual ancestors is the roots in Islam itself.

An important lesson that Islamic art provides is in challenging the notion that works of art from earlier centuries need to be studied as historical 'phenomena', which belong to the past and have very little to do with the future. Against this relativistic point of view, for the Muslim, the great mosques of Kairawan, Cordoba, Cairo, Damascus, Isfahan, Herat and so on belong as much to the present as to the past, insofar as it is possible to realise the state of mind of those who created them, and thus what is timeless in the art of our spiritual ancestors is the roots in Islam itself.

(Burckhardt T, Mirror of the Intellect, Suhail Academy)

http://www.salaam.co.uk/themeofthemonth/march02_index.php?l=0

The Classical Instrument Sarangi

2010-07-29T07:01:00.000-07:00

Sarangi and Tabla

"Sufism has made significant contributions to Islamic civilization in music and philosophy, dance and literature." The Garden of Truth, Seyyed Hossein Nasr

The Classical Music Heritage of Islamic Thought

2010-07-26T23:22:00.000-07:00

There is no historical knowledge how music was presented in the social setting of ancient India.

It is, however, obvious that during the medieval, the so- called ‘Muslim’ period music acquired a respectable place in the set of entertainments which rulers, princes and rich people made available to themselves, In this setting, Dhrupad gave way to a lighter form of music which came to be known as Kheyal. Kheyal is an Urdu word meaning ‘emotion.’ In other words, the song or the poem became an important element, unlike Dhrupad where the chain of sounds was the main frame. The Kheyal is the mainstream classical music as performed today

Kheyal starts with alaap, in lower sounds and in slow motion. This is intended to unfold the ‘face’ of the Raag, its swaroop. The song has two alternating parts, sthayi (stable) and antara (higher). Sthayi is the resting level where the singing must return every time after having covered the ascendancy of the antara.

The whole performance of Kheyal is embellished by frequent taans, presented either in terms of the swars as pronounced, that is Sa, Re, etc., or just as vowels at the same sound levels. As for rhythm, after alaap the singing stays at a normal rhythm, but it gradually speeds up until we reach a crescendo which is presented as tarana. The consonants and the vowels which make the ‘words’ in tarana are without meaning - as in a mantra - and to make this a true representation of the Raag requires some skill.

Jugalbandi, or a duet, is one of the interesting ways in which classical music is presented. The two performers may not be of the same class, although there are two famous cases of brothers, both vocalists, performing together, Nazakat Ali- Salamat Ali of Pakistan and Rajan Mishra- Sajan Mishra of Varanasi.

For the purists, ‘light classical’ or ‘semi- classical’ is an area of controversy. This class includes Thumri, Dadra, Tappa and Holi. The Thumri developed in about 18th century and was practiced mainly by courtesans for the entertainment of the rich. Varanasi and Gaya came to be known as the most prolific centers of Thumri. The practitioners of this genre do not accept its designation as ‘semi-classical’. It is pointed out, with good justification, that if Raag and Taal are both being adhered to, nothing else is required to name it ‘classical’.

Poetry is the main component in a Ghazal. In fact, ‘ghazal’ is the name of a particular form of Urdu poetry, which is generally romantic, and sometimes devotional. Ghazal need not incorporate any Raag and is not contained within the discipline of Taal. The Ghazal singer needs only a light support of Tabla. Quite frequently, instead of the performer adhering to the framework of Taal, it is the Tabla player who adheres to the way the singing takes place. Understandably, the eminent Ghazal singers have used the lyrics of great Urdu poets, such as Zauq, Ghalib, Meer, or Faiz Ahmad Faiz. The words of the poem sometimes contribute much more to the listener’s pleasure than the music through which it is presented. Not being bound down with Raag and Taal, Ghazal singers are able to display great originality and innovation is the frills they provide.

Qawwali emerged as the musical expression of Sufi thought. Sufism, or Islamic mysticism, arose in Arabia and Iran about 9th century, as a philosophical movement within Islam which places man in a passionate, emotional relationship with God and ultimately in union with Him. As far as is known, the musical presentation of Sufi experience as Qawwali was not developed until about 15th century when Sufi orders arose in different parts of India.

Undoubtedly, Amir Khusro, prince, poet, musician and Sufi, was the one who developed Qawwali in 15th century as a combination of mysticism with music. Qawwalis are presented at important Muslim shrines such as Salim Chishti in Ajmer and Nizamuddin in Delhi, as Kirtan is presented in Hindu temples. With several singers participating in a Qawwali, an orchestration of human voice rises, wave after wave, and when the poetry is deeply devotional, it casts a spell over the listeners. Great Qawwals have reasonably good classical training and they provide such inputs as aalap, tan, and even tarana, making a powerful presentation of rich music. A number of the songs still being presented are the compositions of Amir Khusro himself. Since such mystic experience is human rather than scriptural, the poetry employs images, metaphors, even stories taken from both Hinduism and Islam, and has a philosophical, rather than a communal flavor.

The word gharana, literally meaning a household in Hindi, is used in classical music to refer to a lineage of masters and disciples that have evolved a common style. The many gharanas of Indian classical music offer their own unique flavors and nuances, which are quite recognizable to the trained ear. Gwalior gharana is considered to be the fountainhead of all gharanas from where other vocalists learned classical music from their gurus and migrated to other locations if they were of extraordinary merit.

The gharanas were never based on the name of these ustads but the places where they had settled. Thus we have Agra gharana (not the Faiyaz Khan gharana). Following this convention, there are Patiala gharana, Kirana gharana and, of course, Gwalior, Jaipur and Indore gharanas. These came to be known as the principal ones. These gharanas had a distinct flavor of their own.

Indian classical music, never written and, therefore, never distributed to aspiring musicians, is learned at the feet of one's master. Ustad Allauddin Khan, when learning his craft, even worked as a domestic servant in his master's home.

http://www.classicalmusicofindia.com/9255.html

Chai: From China to Europe to India and Pakistan

2010-07-12T05:48:00.000-07:00

The Chinese Emperor Shan Nong - 2737 B.C. - had a habit of boiling his drinking water.

One day while he was in his garden a few tea leaves fell by chance into his boiling water which then gave off a rich, alluring aroma. The Emperor, upon drinking this brew, discovered it to be refreshing and energizing. He immediately gave the command that tea bushes to be planted in the gardens of his palace.

The Chinese originally called it “Kia”. As far as is know it was during the course of the 6th century AD that the name evolved into "Cha". On its arrival in the West it became Té which is still the name for tea in many countries.

Tea arrived in Europe via Dutch and Portuguese sailors at the beginning of the 17th century. British companies established for the importing tea, such as "The East India Trade Company" introduced it commercially in India. Although research shows that tea is indigenous to eastern and northern India, and was cultivated and consumed there for thousands of years.

Today, in Pakistan drinking tea - known as Chai - is a cultural experience! The tea leaves are traditionally boiled in milk - doodh patti - and sweetened with sugar or gur. It is a leading beverage in Pakistan!

http://www.wtea.com/about-tea_history.aspx

The Tradition of Quilts or Ralli of the Indus Region

2010-07-01T02:55:00.000-07:00

Women in the Indus Region of the subcontinent [

Pakistan

] have traditionally been the harbingers of the historical tradition of producing beautiful textiles as the “Ralli” quilts. Adorned with bright colors and bold patterns, the quilts are also called rilli, rallee or rehli derived from the local word ralanna meaning to “mix or connect”.

Quilt making is an old tradition in the region perhaps dating back to the fourth millennium BC judging by similar patterns found on ancient pottery. Muslim and Hindu women from a variety of tribes and castes in towns, villages and nomadic settings make the rallis in the southern provinces of Pakistan - including Sindh, Baluchistan and the Cholistan desert - as well as the provinces of Gujarat and Rajasthan in India.

Rallis are made from scraps of cotton fabric dyed to the desired color. The most common colors are white, black, red and yellow or orange with green, dark blue or purple. For the bottoms of the rallis, the women use old pieces of tie-dye, ajrak or other shawl fabric. Ralli quilts have a few layers of worn fabric or cotton fibers between the top and bottom layers. The layers are held together by thick colored thread stitched in straight lines. The women sit on the ground and do not use a quilting frame.

The number of patterns used on ralli quilts seems to be almost endless, as there is much individual expression and spontaneity in color within the traditional patterns.

The three basic styles of rallis are: 1) patchwork made from pieces of cloth torn into squares and triangles and then stitched together, 2) applique made from intricate cut out patterns in a variety of shapes and 3) embroidered quilts where the embroidery stitches form patterns on solid colored fabric. A distinguishing feature of ralli patterning in patchwork and applique quilts is the diagonal placement of similar blocks as well as a variety of embellishments including mirrors, tassels, shells and embroidery.

http://www.ralliquilt.com/history.html

http://teabreak.pk/ralli-quilts-of-pakistan-106/13151/

COLOR, SYMBOLISM AND THE MYSTIC QUEST

2010-06-28T06:55:00.000-07:00

Dr. Samir Mahmud

Color, Symbolism, and the Mystic Quest: the Spiritual Exegesis of Color in Sufism in the Works of Henry Corbin

This paper is an attempt to elucidate one aspect of the phenomenology of color in Islam, namely that found in the works of some mystics. To achieve this it will draw on various mystical commentaries on those Quranic verses that explicitly refer to color. Particular reference will be made to the Sufi commentaries. It will then explore how some of these verses and the nature of color were discussed by Sufis like Najumddin Kubra and `Alludawlah Simnani in their phenomenology of colors. Particular attention will be paid to Henry Corbin’s groundbreaking work on these authors in his The Man of Light in Iranian Sufism and other essays where he elucidates the supra-sensory modes of perception associated with mystic perception and where he explores parallels between these Sufis and Goethe’s Farbenlehre. Some of the questions that will be asked are: What are the implications of these theories of color photisms on our scientific theories of light and color? What can they reveal about the nature of reality? Can the theories of the Sufis on color symbolism as revealing the various states of the mystic quest reveal anything about color in Islamic art? It is not our intention to resolve the problem in this paper but to contribute to the debate. The paper is intended as an introduction to the topic and will rehearse many of the arguments put forward by Henry Corbin with the intention of placing his work on color theory back in the limelight after years of neglect.

Watch Podcast: http://podcast.islamicartdoha.org/2009/samir-mahmoud-color-symbolism-and-the-mystic-quest-the-spiritual-exegesis-of-color-in-sufism-in-the-works-of-henry-corbin/

SAMIR MAHMOUD is a Ph.D. candidate at the Faculty of Divinity, University of Cambridge, where the focus of his research is aesthetics in Ibn ‘Arabi. Mr. Mahmoud has won numerous awards from the University of New South Wales and from Cambridge University. His publications include “The Space of Soul: Towards a Phenomenology of Sacred Space,” in Sacred Species and Sites: Guardians of Biocultural Diversity (2008) and “From Heidegger to Suhrawardi: An Introduction to the Thought of Henry Corbin” (2006), published on the official website of Henry Corbin, www.amiscorbin.com. Mr. Mahmoud has worked previously as a researcher at the Australian Museum, Sydney and as a designer at CIVITAS, an urban design and architecture firm based in Sydney, and has taught courses at the Centre for Muslim-Jewish Relations in Cambridge, UK.

Topkapi: The Official Residence of the Ottoman Sultans

2010-06-26T04:35:00.000-07:00

Topkapı Palace constructed by Fatih Sultan Mehmet, (the Conqueror) in 1478 has been the official residence of the Ottoman Sultans and center of State Administration around 380 years until the construction of Dolmabahçe Palace by Sultan Abdülmecid. The palace having around 700.000 m.² area during the foundation years has currently 80.000 m.² area.

Topkapı Palace was evacuated by the accommodation of the Palace inhabitants in Dolmabahçe, Yıldız and in other palaces. Upon abandoning by the Sultans, Topkapı Palace where many officials resided had also never lost its importance. The palace was repaired from time to time. A special attention was taken for the annual maintenance of Mukaddes Emanetler Dairesi (Sacred Safekeeping Rooms) visited by the sultan and his family during Ramadan.

At the time of his conquest, Sultan Mehmed encountered an impoverished city with a population of a mere forty thousand souls who lived scattered about in isolated residential sections set amidst cultivated fields. The site he chose for his palace was typical: a hill covered with an olive grove, presumably several abandoned monastic structures, chapels, and bathhouses, and a small residential district by the sea.

This was the beginning of an unprecedented scheme of grandiose proportions which became synonymous with Ottoman cultural and administrative history. More than a residential complex for the royal household, the new palace was to become the pivotal institution for the planning and decision-making institutions of a far-flung empire and it remained so from the late 15th century to the middle of the l9th.

All the palaces built (or completed) during the reign of Mehmed II exhibit the same spatial order based on the principle of interconnected courtyards, each located in clearly defined public, semi-public, and private zones. These courtyards were arranged according to hierarchical considerations with their shapes being determined by topography rather than precise geometric or orthogonal principles. The number of these courtyards was flexible: there had to be at least two but could be as many as nine, as in the case of the Edirne place. Only five of them, however, were given the designation meydan (square) or taslik (courtyard) according to the particular palace's terminology.

http://www.topkapisarayi.gov.tr/eng/tarihce.html

http://topkapipalace.com/history.htm

THE DOMINATING PRINCIPLE OF ISLAMIC ART COMES FROM THE QURAN

2010-06-19T00:41:00.000-07:00

Seyyed Hossein Nasr

The principle, the truth of the Nature of Reality which dominates over Islamic art and the philosophy of beauty which governs it, comes directly from the Qur’an and hadith. It is, however, much too subtle to be seen externally. One of the reasons is that you don’t have a book in Islam on the philosophy of beauty or how they did architecture? No body knows how the Badshahi Mosque or the Taj Mahal or Isphahan mosque was built. This tradition was handed over orally from generation to generation through the artistic guilds, those of chivalry, the brotherhood organisations that were ultimately connected to the Çarâqah or the esoteric path. What are these principles that have dominated over all forms of Islamic art from its beginning?

The first is tawhid, the doctrine of unity. All authentic Islamic art must reflect Divine Unity. There are consequences for that. First is that you must always have an integration of the form. There is a centre to it. Islamic art is always a centered art. It has a centre from which it speaks - whether architecture, calligraphy, miniature, carpet weaving etc.-and that is a reflection of tawhid. One can extend this principle to great lengths, as it is the most important of all principles of Islamic art. It means to exclude from Islamic art all forms of idolatry.

Theologically idolatry means to make an idol or statue and say that it is God. This is only the external understanding of idolatry. But an understanding of Islamic art is always related to Sufism which tries to transcend the external forms to reach tawhid within, to understand the unity of creation. It is not accidental that every great calligrapher of Islamic lands is related to Sufism. Anyhow the first important principle i.e. tawhid works on many levels; of integration, of lack of alienation, of lack of tension between parts, integration of the psyche of the listener instead of dispersion etc.

Second principle is that of Jamal. Up till modern times all art took beauty into consideration. Modern art has developed the cult of ugliness, considering beauty to be trivial and unnecessary and even a luxury. The modern theoreticians of art considered that art should be related to utility and not to beauty. The Islamic perspective has been summarised in an important Áhadith that defines Islamic art in the whole of Islamic civilisation. “Allahu Jamâlun yuhibu ‘l-jamal”(God is beautified and He loves beauty). Beauty is reality, ugliness is unreality. To live in ugliness is to live in illusion, in unreality. This is in contrast to much of the modern art, which tries to discover the ugly, the evil and says that it is important, the good is not important.

There is the famous saying, “In every thing there is a sign which bears witness to His Oneness.” Islamic art tries to accentuate that aspect instead of hiding it.

Thirdly, there is the un-iconic character of the Islamic art. In many civilisations art flows from the representation of the Divinity. Examples of the Christian or Hindu art could be cited in this regard. All Christian art is dominated by the image of Christ. On the other hand, un-iconic art means an art that refuses to depict the divine in a direct from. It excludes a statue or an image that represents divinity. The reason for it is the emphasis of Islam upon tawhid on the highest level. It is not a religion based upon the manifestation of divinity like the Hindu avatars or Christ who, in a sense, is the Abrahamic avatar since for the Christians he represents the descent, the incarnation of the Divinity. Islam places itself on the position of the Divinity Itself, the pure Divinity, the Absolute Reality which cannot descent in the world of forms or it would no longer be the Absolute. That is why Islamic art is characterised by an attempt to bring the Sacred into the world without representing the Divinity directly.

Read full lecture: http://www.allamaiqbal.com/publications/journals/review/apr02/08-Principles%20of%20Islamic%20Art.htm

DECORATIVE TECHNIQUES THROUGH GENERATIONS IN ISLAMIC ART

2010-06-08T05:00:00.000-07:00

Whether produced in a courtly or an urban setting or for a religious context, Islamic art is generally the work of anonymous artists. Given the great number of extant examples, comparatively few signatures are found on metalwork, pottery, carved wood and stone, and textiles.

Those signatures that do occur, combined with rare evidence from contemporary textual sources, suggest that families of artists, often over several generations, specialized in a particular medium or technique. Often time the artist was an artisan whose stock of patterns and technical skills were handed down from generation to generation within specialised families. Learning the techniques, the firing or glazing of the pottery, the weaving of the cloth etc., and learning the particular shapes and designs to be used, formed a single process in training the young.

The least artisanal work, such as woodwork, pottery, weaving, and so forth includes, beyond its material technique, a certain transmitted science, sometimes reduced to some very simple rules but always bearing an aspect of wisdom, which the artisan will more or less penetrate, according to the degree of his contemplative intelligence and his experience.

It has been said that work with ones hands allows one to know oneself. In this way, manual art can be a means through which man is better able to contemplate on his Lord. Not only by recognising the bounty of materials that God has provided him/her with, but also, more importantly through recognition of ones own capabilities and limitations as an artisan, when comparing his work to the Greatest of Crafters.

In contrast to Western art, in which painting and sculpture are pre-eminent, it is in the so-called decorative arts that Islamic art found its primary means of expression.

Through the diversity of the Islamic Empire, which linked together, for the first time in history, such varied and distant peoples as Spaniards, Africans, Persians, Turks, Egyptians and Indians, a quick dissemination of knowledge and artistic merging arose.

During Parthian and Sasanian times, the ceramic arts had been little patronised by the wealthy, especially east of Iraq. Even in villages, the pottery remained undistinguished as compared with that of earlier centuries. But for the first time, under Islamic Abbasid rule, porcelains imported from China (in its expansive Tang period) inspired a distinct revival of ceramic art.

The porcelain imports could not be duplicated, but ways were found to imitate its whiteness. They succeeded in developing many original decorative techniques including lustre ware and a method of polychrome painted ware called Minai.

These same decorative techniques were utilized in tile making, in which Muslims were unsurpassed.

THE ISLAMIC VIEW OF CRAFTSMANSHIP

2010-06-02T02:02:00.000-07:00

From an Islamic perspective art consists in fashioning objects in a manner conformable to their nature, for that nature has a virtual content of beauty, since it comes from God; all one has to do is release that beauty in order to make it apparent.

According to the most general Islamic conception, art is no more than a method of ennobling matter.

And since there is no better action than the remembrance of God, according to the sayings of the Prophet (pbuh), a craft can be good only to the degree to which it aids in this remembrance, directly or indirectly.

Just as knowledge of Qur'an and hadith, according to traditional Islamic teaching, needs to be passed down through an unbroken golden chain from teacher to student leading back to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh).

Similarly this wisdom and baraka (spiritual blessing) is recognised and permeates many aspects of the conscientious Muslim's life even in the domain of craftsmanship.

The following account is found in Titus Burckhardt's book "Fez: City of Islam"

"I knew a comb-maker who worked in the street of his guild, called Abd al-Aziz (slave of the Almighty).

One day he complained to me that the importation of plastic combs was diminishing his business: 'It is not only a pity that today, solely on account of price, poor quality combs from a factory are being preferred to much more durable horn combs,' he said; 'it is also senseless that people should stand by a machine and mindlessly repeat the same movement, while an old craft like mine falls into oblivion.

My work may seem crude to you; but it harbours a subtle meaning which cannot be explained in words. I myself acquired it only after many long years, and even if I wanted to, I could not automatically pass it on to my son, if he himself did not wish to acquire it - and I think he would rather take up another occupation.

This craft can be traced back from apprentice to master until one reaches our Lord Seth, the son of Adam. It was he who first taught it to man, and what a Prophet brings-for Seth was a Prophet-must clearly have a special purpose-both outwardly and inwardly. I gradually came to understand that there is nothing fortuitous about this craft, that each movement and each procedure is a bearer of an element of wisdom. But not everyone can understand this. But even if one does not know this, it is still stupid and reprehensible to rob men of the inheritance of Prophets, and to put them in front of a machine where, day in and day out, they must perform a meaningless task."

THE INSTITUTION OF KHANQAH IN THE ISLAMIC WORLD

2010-05-31T05:20:00.000-07:00

KHANQAH _E_ MAULA, SRINAGAR, KASHMIR

Khanqah is an important institution for Muslim society. Salat, religious assemblies and other Islamic functions are held here. Often established as a place of shelter for a large number of sufis, khanqahs generally had residential buildings, mosques, madrassahs, and mazaars (tombs), and various annexes and ancillary buildings, which made virtually independent complexes. In most cases, khanqahs were built on rent-free lands under government patronage.

In the past Khanqahs served as hospices for Sufi travelers (Salik) and Islamic students (Talib). Khanqahs are very often found adjoined to Dargahs (shrine of a Sufi saint), mosques and madrassas (Islamic schools).

Khanqah Maula is the first ever mosque in Kashmir built by Sultan Sikandar in 1395 AD in memory of Mir Sayyed Ali Hamadani, the famous Persian saint who popularized Islam in Kashmir, Ladakh & the surroundings.

The mosque is situated on the banks of the famous river, Jhelum.

The mosque is made of wood and has fine papier mache work on the walls & roof. The balconies are ornamented with finely carved wood and small columns.

The shrine is one of the finest examples of beautiful lattice work in deodar wood, pinjrakari & elaborate wood carving, all in deodar wood. Wooden ceilings are characterized by geometrical paneling, khatambandi, originally from Iran, but now peculiar to only Kashmir.

The aesthetic appeal of the hospice lies in its beautifully carved eaves and hanging bells; the richly carved and painted interiors and some antique chandeliers lend to it an air of lavishness. The chamber in the northwest corner of the big hall contains the renowned saint’s tomb.

http://ziyarat-e-kashmir.com/khanqah_of_shahehamdan.html

Mosque Architecture

2010-04-23T03:29:00.000-07:00

Mosque Al-Azhar, Cairo, Egypt

The Mosque of al-Azhar was founded by Jawhar al-Siqilly, the Fatimid conqueror of Egypt, in 970 as the congregational mosque for the new city of al-Qahira.

The first khutba was delivered from its minbar in 972 and a university was established there in 988.

Mamluk madrasas were established in the ziyada (outer enclosure): Taybarsiyya in 1309 and Aqbughawiyya in 1340. The Taybarsiyya has two iwans, one for the Shafi'ites and the other for the Malikites.

This mosque served as a model for the Mosque of the Qarafa, a congregational mosque built by al-Sayyida al-Mu'izziyya in 976.

Chinese Muslim Wedding Tradition

2010-04-10T10:55:00.000-07:00

Wang Daiyu, Islaminchina.com

It is however safe to say that just like other Muslim communities they are a blend of local cultures and Islamic religious requirements just as Arab Muslim wedding traditions are a blend of Arab culture and Islamic requirements, Malaysian wedding traditions are a blend of Malaysian culture and Islamic requirements etc.

A Chinese Muslim wedding is very complex, but it avoids all superstitions such as the reading of the horoscopes of the betrothed persons. Some ask the Ahund to read the Arabic wedding rite on the wedding day or the day before. If one of the parties is not a Muslim, the Ahund admits that one into Islam one or two days before the wedding so both may be of the same faith.

The new type [of Chinese wedding] follows the teaching of Islam and gains the consent of both parties. Islamic wedding customs are rational and at the same time are timeless, for they follow rules laid down more than thirteen hundred years ago. Emphasis on agreement between both parties, especially the consent of the girl, shows the Islamic stress on the rights of men and the protection of the rights of womanhood.

The ceremonies of engagement and marriage are quite similar for Chinese Muslims and non-Muslims except that the Muslims celebrate the event with a religious and a general ceremony, and they do not use old Chinese music or gongs or fire crackers since they consider them to be superstitious.

The religious ceremony is held a day before or just preceding the general ceremony. At present Muslims hold the marriage ceremony in the mosque.

The Artistic Expression Fostered by Islam Itself

2010-04-07T02:19:00.000-07:00

The Los Angeles County Museum of Art

"Although this [Islamic Art] is a highly dynamic art, which is often marked by strong regional characteristics as well as by significant influences from other cultures, it retains an overall coherence that is remarkable given its vast geographic and temporal boundaries. Of paramount concern to the development of this singular art is Islam itself, which fostered the creation of a distinctive visual culture with its own unique artistic language.

In Islamic cultures the so-called decorative arts provide the primary means of artistic expression, in contrast to Western art, in which painting and sculpture are preeminent. Illuminated manuscripts, woven textiles and carpets, inlaid metalwork, blown glass, glazed ceramics, and carved wood and stone all absorbed the creative energies of artists, becoming highly developed art forms. These works include small-scale objects of daily use, such as delicate glass beakers, as well as more monumental architectural decoration, for example, glazed tile panels from building façades. Such objects were meticulously fabricated and carefully embellished, often with rare and costly materials, suggesting that the people for whom they were made sought to surround themselves with beauty.

Whether produced in a courtly or an urban setting or for a religious context, Islamic art is generally the work of anonymous artists. A notable exception is in the sphere of the arts of the book. The names of certain calligraphers are well known, which is not surprising given the primacy of the written word in Islam, as are those of a number of painters, most of whom were attached to a particular court. The identification of these artists has been based on signed or attributed examples of their works and on textual references. Given the great number of extant examples, comparatively few signatures are found on metalwork, pottery, carved wood and stone, and textiles. Those signatures that do occur, combined with rare evidence from contemporary textual sources, suggest that families of artists, often over several generations, specialized in a particular medium or technique."

The Los Angeles County Museum of Art houses one of the most significant collections of Islamic art in the world.

http://www.lacma.org/islamic_art/intro.htm

Enduring Forms of Islamic Art: Calligraphy – An Islamic Heritage

2010-04-06T10:09:00.000-07:00

Siddiqua Shahnawaz

Any architectural work has both a functional and an artistic dimension, which are :

1) An immediate physical context that determines the style, and
2) A wider social, cultural and economic frame of reference that gives it meaning.

For example, in the case of a Masjid, the prayer hall must be suitable for its purpose in accordance with the liturgy of Islam, but the building itself must also 'speak' to the local community, providing both spiritual upliftment and an anchor for the community's identity.

Calligraphy, known as 'khatt' in Arabic, is an outstanding example of such blending of form and function. From the grandest of Masjids with their expertly carved stuccos to the simplest of rural Masjids with few Qur'anic verses painted on their walls, one can see the strong influence of Qur'anic calligraphy that has attached itself to the expression of Islamic art.

A passion for the written script constitutes one of the fundamental traits of Islamic culture. For Islam, the Arabic script is not merely a tool invented by human beings, but a gift of God. As Allah says in the Qur'an:

"Recite, and thy Lord is the Most Honourable! Who taught (to write) with the Pen, taught man what he knew not"
(Surah al-Alaq, verses 3-5).

Innumerable Hadeeth of the Prophet [pbuh] and his Ahlul Bayt [A.S] distinctly convey the importance of gaining knowledge and emphasize the value of the written word. For example, the Prophet has said "The ink of a scholar is holier than the blood of a martyr".

In general, Qur'anic texts are selected for inscriptions in Masjids, but quotations from the Hadeeth and other pious phrases are also found. Thus, calligraphy serves as an ornamental purpose along with conveying the word of God and sayings of the Holy Prophet [pbuh].

Origin of Islamic Calligraphy

In the words of Dost Muhammad of Gawashwan, a sixteenth century writer, "It is etched on the minds of the masters of the arcane that the garden of painting and illumination is an orchard of perfect adornment; and the arrangement and embellishment of the Qur'an, which bespeak the glorification of the word of the Exalted, are connected to the pen and bound to the design and drawing of the masters of this noble craft".

It has been recorded that the first person to adorn with painting and illumination the writing of the word that is necessarily welcomed was Ali Ibn Abi Talib [A.S], and the gates of this commodity were opened to this group by the key of that Majesty's pen. A few leaves (barg), known in the parlance of painters as Islami, were invented by him." (translated by Thackston in 'A Century of Princes').

Furthermore, Mir Sayyid Ahmad Mashhadi, in the preface to the Bahram Mirza Album says, "Guided by the inscription of the register of the city of knowledge, of which Ali is the gate..."everyone is commanded to strive to attain this noble and honourable craft (calligraphy) when he said, "Have beautiful writing, for it is among the keys to sustenance." Thus, calligraphy has always enjoyed a special status in Islam.

Enduring Forms of Islamic Art: Canons of Decorative Art

2010-04-06T09:23:00.000-07:00

Early in the 11^th century there began a Sunni revival, which had both religious and cultural aspects. This movement, which saw itself as a restoration of traditionalism, was accompanied by an artistic revival that established many of the enduring forms of Islamic art and architecture – in particular, its canon of decorative art. The three elements of the Islamic decorative canon began to appear as early as the Umayyad period, but they crystallised into their classic forms during the ‘Sunni Revival’.

Calligraphy gives a visible form to the revealed word of the Qur’an and is therefore considered the most noble of the arts. It manages to combine a geometric discipline with a dynamic rhythm. Interestingly, none of its many styles, created in different places at different periods, has ever completely fallen into disuse. In the Islamic world it takes the place of iconography, being widely used in the decorative schemes of buildings.

Geometric patterns have always had a particular appeal to Muslim designers and craftsmen. They convey a certain aura of spirituality, or at least otherworldliness, without relating to any specific doctrine. In an Islamic context they are also quite free of any symbolic meaning. Above all they provide craftsmen with the opportunity to demonstrate his skill and subtlety of workmanship, and often to dazzle and intrigue with its sheer complexity.

Vegetal ‘Arabesque’ compositions are as ubiquitous in Islamic decoration as geometric patterns. It is difficult, without other indications, to determine where or when a particular composition of this genre might have originated. Like geometrical designs, these too are found across the entire range of mediums from book illustration to plasterwork; in ceramics, woodwork, metalwork and ivory-carving, even in carpets and textiles.

Motifs of Taj Mahal

2010-04-04T21:57:00.000-07:00

Flowers are often seen as a reference to Paradise, their blooms and color a testament to the abundant waters and fruitful nature of the gardens of Eden.

In much Timurid architecture, which the Mughals greatly admired, geometric patterns and well proportioned designs were also seen as an indication of divine harmony and peace. This idea may have inspired the balanced and harmonious abstract designs that ornament the Taj Mahal.

A combination of the three types of motif - calligraphic, floral and geometric - creates a decorative scheme that forms part of an earthly representation of a heavenly paradise.

See more: http://www.taj-mahal.net/augEng/textMM/decorschemeengN.htm

Silence Reigns in the Miniatures Room at NCA

2010-04-01T06:00:00.000-07:00

Louis Werner

In the Miniature Painting Department of Pakistan’s National College of Arts (NCA), here, in a two-year intensive program that is a kind of modern karkhana, or Mughal painting workshop, students learn meticulous techniques, including ultra fine figure drawing and brushwork, tea staining of page borders and burnishing of paper surfaces—as well as how to work with such centuries-old materials as brushes made of squirrel-tail hair; handmade, multi-layered paper called wasli; and mussel-shell paint pots. Later, they give their imagination free rein to create new possibilities and new meanings for this highly disciplined tradition, in the context of a contemporary art world where few rules still seem to apply.

The NCA is now Pakistan’s premier institution granting Bachelor of Fine Arts degrees, and annually some 20,000 applicants seek one of its 150 admission slots; of these, only a dozen or so are chosen for the miniature-painting major.

Qureshi explains that it takes a special sort of student to major in miniatures, as opposed to, say, studio painting or printmaking. First of all, miniature painters sit on the floor all day, holding their paper up close to their eyes, bracing their painting arm against the body. “The hand becomes the palette, shells the mixing bowls. The floor replaces the stool, and the lap becomes the easel,” he says.

Minute, repetitive brush strokes render delicate figures in a painstaking technique called pardakht, a kind of linear pointillisme. It’s a far cry from the drips and splashes tossed about by the easel painters in the studio next door. Except for a faint bleeding of sound from students’ iPods, silence reigns in the miniatures room. Miniaturists choose their genre for reasons that derive from their personalities.

As Shahzia Sikander said at her 2001 Asia Society show in New York, a time when she was working in a more traditional vein, “the entire notion of ‘copying’ needs to be clarified.” Is it, she continued, “understanding the process, or is it understanding the lineage of the medium, or is it mere appropriation? Copying can also mean understanding history. One has to look at someone else’s work very carefully before relating to it in a personal way, in the same sense as claiming a historical past.”

Only in Pakistan does one find radical innovators like Qureshi painting oversize “miniatures” directly onto the walls of museums, or works like Rubaba Haider’s 2008 senior thesis, a piece she calls mader-e-gul (“My mother, the flower”): an installation of 35 paintings in small, round frames hung from the ceiling waist-high in a walk-through maze, each painting an image conjured from her own emotional responses to her mother’s stomach surgery.

As wildly creative as NCA miniaturists are invited to become by the time they graduate, their first full year of study is dedicated to the mastery of technique.

Teachers Waseem Ahmed and Naheed Fakhruddin, both NCA graduates themselves, oversee their 13 students’ progress not only in pardakht, but also in tappiai, or background color application; layee, or flour-glue paper surfacing and burnishing; and siah qalam, or black-brush work. However, they add with relief, catching one’s own squirrel in Lahore’s Shalimar Garden for brushmaking is no longer required, as it was in the early days.

Video-game design may not be what ustad Bashir has in mind for the pardakht technique that he insists students must master before graduation, but Sardar’s teacher Hasnat Mehmood is all in favor of experimenting with anything at hand. He teaches fine graphite-pencil drawing in miniature style, and tries above all to keep his students from developing a “copyist” mentality. He puts new students through autobiographical exercises, asking them to draw a self-portrait beside a copied classic Mughal figure as a diptych in an invented architectural setting.

Read Full Article:

http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200904/reinventing.the.miniature.painting.htm

Pure, Natural Perfume: Itr

2010-03-15T04:50:00.000-07:00

The Persian word attar is a transliteration of the Arabic itr, meaning "fragrance", "scent" or "essence". Persian rulers were known to wear attars more than 5000 years ago.

In the 10th century, the great Persian physician Hakim Ibn Sina used distillation to extract the fragrances from plants and used these for medicinal purposes. Rose water became one of the most famous of his perfumes and continues to be very popular, particularly in the Middle Eastern and Asian countries.

Simply explained, itr is the pure extract of flowers in sandalwood oil. Sandalwood oil forms an ideal base for perfumes and serves as a good preservative. No chemicals or alcohol bases are used.

17th century India and Noorjehan, the Mughal empress's discovery - of an oily layer over the water from rose petals kept to cool overnight - was the beginning of the natural itrs in India, which developed and progressed in and around Kannauj, near Kanpur, and is still a centre of itr production to this day.

Although aroma bearing substances like Sandal, Musk, Comphor, Saffron as such were used in India before the advent of the Mughals, the range of such materials and essential oils was further enriched when new plants were brought by them from Central Asia. Abul Fazal in Ain-e-Akbari mentions flowers like ghulab, bela, chameli, champa, maulshri and rajnigandha along with the roots like adrak or ginger and barks as sandal, cinnamon and aloe. Animal substances like musk, myrrh and ambergris were also used along with khus, a type of grass and a few other spices.

Today the most used varieties of itr in the Indo-Pak subcontinent are rose, jasmine, sandal, henna, nargis, majmua, kevda, khus and mogra. One of the most expensive itrs is oudh, made from the bark of a tree variety found in Assam.

A Jewel of Divine Wisdom

2010-03-05T21:33:00.000-08:00

Fusus al-Hikam (The Seals of Wisdom) by Shaikh-ul-Akbar Muhyuddin ibn Arabi (Murcia 1164 - 1240). Translated by Maulana Abdul Qadeer Siddiqui.

The first chapter of the Fusus al-hikam (The Bezels of Wisdom) is entitled 'The Wisdom of Divinity in the Word of Adam'.

It begins with the assertion that the Real created the cosmos as an all-inclusive object in which he could contemplate the entities of his names, but that until he created Adam and breathed his spirit into him, the cosmos remained like an unpolished mirror.

Here Ibn al-'Arabi's idea seems to be that the cosmos as a whole - the totality of existent entities - manifests all the divine names but does so in a diffuse way, whereas man, as a microcosm endowed with consciousness, brings them into sharp focus as a unity.

Here Ibn al-'Arabi's idea seems to be that the cosmos as a whole - the totality of existent entities - manifests all the divine names but does so in a diffuse way, whereas man, as a microcosm endowed with consciousness, brings them into sharp focus as a unity.

Potentially every man is a microcosm, but in practice men differ in their polishing of the cosmic mirror, with only a select few realizing their primordial nature. These are the prophets and saints, all of whom belong to the category of 'the perfect man' (al-insan al-kamil). They alone assume the character traits of God, which are latent in all human beings, and manifest them in perfect equilibrium.

Muhammad is the 'perfect man' par excellence. Basing his argument on the hadith (sayings of the Prophet), 'I was a prophet when Adam was between water and clay', Ibn al-'Arabi propounds the view that as 'the Muhammadan reality' (al-haqiqa al-Muhammadiyya), Muhammad is identical with 'the first intellect' (al-'aql al-awwal), the eternal principle unifying the immutable entities. All the other prophets, beginning with Adam, only became prophets during their historical mission; each was the bearer of a fragment of this Muhammadan reality in a particular place and time, a bezel in which a jewel of the divine wisdom was displayed. None the less, after their mission the prophets continued to exert an influence through the saints who were their spiritual heirs.

Courtesy:

http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H022.htm#H022WKENT1

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